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Greenhouse gas emissions, toxic air pollution, traffic congestion, noise: these are just some of the negative impacts associated with automobiles. But while cars currently rule the roads, drivers around the world are encouraged to ditch their automobiles every year on September 22 to celebrate World Car-Free Day. Observed in towns and cities across the globe, this annual event is aimed at raising awareness about the impacts of cars while promoting healthier and more sustainable alternatives like walking, cycling, and the use of public transportation. The downside of automobiles. Many towns and cities today are built around the use of cars, often leaving little space for pedestrians. But the prioritization of cars by city planners has numerous negative impacts on the environment and human health. Despite the significant growth in global electric vehicle sales in recent years, the majority of cars on the road today still have internal combustion engines that pump out roughly 3.5 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (GtCO₂) into the atmosphere each year. This not only accounts for half of global transportation CO₂ emissions, but also represents around 10 percent of total global fossil CO₂ emissions. It’s not just the climate that cars are affecting. Automobiles also worsen air quality, with vehicle exhaust responsible for large releases of toxic air pollutants like nitrogen oxide and PM2.5, both of which are harmful to human health and linked to millions of deaths worldwide. People living in large urban centers are particularly exposed to these hazardous pollutants, with children especially vulnerable. These burdens are further aggravated by traffic jams, which have become a persistent problem in populated cities as the number of vehicles on the roads has risen. Benefits of World Car-Free Day. World Car Free Day is a way to alleviate many of the issues associated with cars, and show what urban environments with reduced car numbers and congestion can be like. With pedestrians able to retake the streets, events such as street parties and cycling races are organized in cities that are typically overrun with cars. Fewer vehicles on the road also means people are less exposed to air pollution. This was perhaps best exemplified during the outbreak of COVID-19, when lockdowns caused traffic levels to plummet, thereby reducing levels of harmful air pollutants like NO₂ in major global metropolises. Many cities around the world are now trying to reduce car numbers, whether by increasing cycling lanes, creating car-free zones, or introducing limited traffic zones, congestion charges, and low emissions zones. The latter scheme has had notable success; in London, for example, Ultra Low Emission Zones have reduced traffic flows, which in turn has helped cut roadside NO₂ concentrations in central London in half since 2019. Meanwhile, cities including Milan and Paris are aiming to fully ban cars from entering city centers in a bid to address traffic congestion and improve air quality. Globally, there is clear progress being made to deter automobiles from populated areas and promote alternatives, thereby giving urban spaces back to people.

California, along with 11 other states, is committed to halting the sale of new petrol-powered cars by 2035. In December 2024, the California Energy Commission approved a 1.4 billion U.S. dollar plan which would make nearly 17,000 new chargers available statewide for electric vehicles over the next four years. However, recommendations from Donald Trump’s transition team contrast with the measures taken at the state-level. California is not only the U.S.’s largest car market, but also the country’s biggest battery-electric vehicle (BEV) fleet, reporting over four times the volume of BEVs in circulation on Florida’s roads. Despite this, the Golden state was the second U.S. state with the highest transportation-related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022, contextualizing its efforts to decarbonize its new car registrations. A growing electric vehicle market and charging infrastructure. Electric vehicles (EVs) held nearly a third of the new vehicle market in the Golden State in 2023, and fully electric vehicles were the most popular EV type. Large urban areas tended to be hotspots for new EV sales, with Los Angeles and Orange County recording the most battery-electric vehicle and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle sales. However, while Los Angeles greatly outpaced other counties in terms of absolute volume of EVs sold, only around a quarter of its total light vehicle sales were zero-emissions vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Los Angeles was also the Californian counties with the largest charging infrastructure network. As of December 2024, J1772 was the most widespread connector type at charging locations across California, followed by locations offering Tesla connectors. Tesla Destination was the third-largest EV charging network in the Golden State, behind non-networked chargers and ChargePoint Network. The prevalence of Tesla chargers is partly due to the brand’s prominence in California. Tesla was not only the Californian fully electric vehicle bestseller in 2023, but was also the second best-selling light vehicle brand across propulsion types in California, only surpassed by Toyota. State incentives to boost electric vehicle adoption. California has been heavily investing in its charging infrastructure and financial purchase incentives for consumers to promote the sale of more zero-emission vehicles. In 2023, California received around 81.7 million U.S. dollars from the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Formula Program to improve its charging network. California also offers extensive incentives for electric vehicle purchase, home charging installation, and electric utility. These include tax credits on leased and purchased vehicles, used clean vehicle credit, and the clean vehicle rebate project, among others. The Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP) issued nearly 90,400 rebates worth an aggregated 330.7 billion U.S. dollars in 2023. Most of the rebates given since the program’s inception were in Los Angeles, as California’s main population and electric vehicle hub. California’s electric vehicle market was able to develop thanks to various factors, including the Federal and state-level support for the decarbonization of the Golden state’s transport sector. The market is at its most prolific in highly urban areas, especially Los Angeles, but other counties have also benefited from this support. New policy recommendations could, however, impact the market evolution.

Japanese light motor vehicles, domestically known as kei cars, are automobiles defined by being shorter than 3.4 meters with a maximum height of two meters and a maximum width of 1.48 meters. The engine capacity is restricted to 0.66 liters. Kei cars are often box-shaped to minimize the overall size of the vehicle while maximizing interior space. Small size – big sales. After being introduced into the Japanese automotive market in the late 1940s, light motor vehicles have quickly gained popularity. Kei cars are not only an affordable alternative to regular-sized private passenger cars; there are also models manufactured for commercial purposes, including mini trucks, minivans, and small-sized assisted-mobility vehicles. Nowadays, more than one in three vehicles owned or in use fall into this category in Japan. While the most popular regular-sized passenger car model the Toyota Yaris, recorded unit sales of almost 213 thousand units in 2021, Honda’s mini-sized N-Box model rivaled the Yaris, selling nearly 190 thousand units. All major Japanese automotive manufacturers carry mini cars in their portfolio. Light motor vehicle specialist Daihatsu has the highest unit sales within the domestic kei car market, and other renowned brands such as Suzuki, Honda, and Nissan rank right below. Available kei cars are mostly gasoline-fueled – some carmakers even offer hybrid-electric models – yet their size, otherwise a strength, poses structural problems for battery-electric versions. Why are mini vehicles successful? To some extent, the success is attributable to Japan’s road infrastructure. Not until 1938 did regulations require roads to measure at least four meters in width (before ca. 2.75 meters). Therefore, Japan‘s cities are densely constructed, with small vehicles naturally better navigating its narrow roads. Moreover, real estate is expensive - so is parking. While many people in metropolitan regions rely on public transport or bicycles to get around daily, individuals living in more suburban and rural areas depend on the usage of cars. Initially, mini-sized vehicles were a domestic solution to meet the demand for an affordable four-wheeler adjusted in size to the actual road design. Recently, however, the Japanese automotive industry noticed the presence of mini vehicles in other Asian markets, like India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Malaysia. With demand for automobiles increasing in Asian countries that share similar features to Japan, i.e., scarcity of highways and abundance of narrow roads, mini vehicles might realize their potential as export products, as did their larger siblings.

In 2022, nearly half of all shared cars in Italy were electric and among station-based vehicles alone this share was even higher in 2023, at 60 percent. Meanwhile, the electrification rate of Italy’s overall fleet, including hybrids, stood at only 4.3 percent in 2022. Not even the European leader for fleet electrification, Norway, could keep up with Italy’s shared fleet, with around a third of its fleet being electric or hybrid electric. Microcars join the fleet. Car sharing fleets across Europe tend to have a far larger share of electric cars than the overall car electrification rate in the country. The age of fleets, more centralized planning through operators and in some cases public incentives are contributing factors to this trend. But even among car sharing fleets in other European countries, Italy stands out. For instance, in the Netherlands, which also have one of the higher shares of battery-powered vehicles in their shared fleets, electric cars only constituted 30 percent of station-based shared cars. Contributing factors to Italy’s high electrification are several operators exclusively providing electric cars and its adoption of microcars. Several car sharing providers operate fleets of all-electric microcars, which contribute to the high share of electric cars in the Italian fleet. Microcars are a relatively new addition to the market, with the car sharing market leader, Enjoy, only introducing them to their fleet in 2022. Microcars are cars that can seat only one to two people and tend to have limited carrying capacity and can be subject to less stringent license requirements. Microcars appear to have found a niche in the Italian sharing market, which they have not been afforded to the same extent in neighboring countries. For instance, while only a third of Germans said they might consider using minimobility, which includes microcars, Italians were found to be far more favorable, with nearly half saying they could imagine using minimobility vehicles. Milan: The capital of Italian car sharing. Milan exceeds most other cities in Italy on almost every car sharing metric. It had the largest number of vehicles available in 2022 and the largest number of cars per person, 18 cars per 10,000 inhabitants. Between 2016 and 2022, Milan consistently recorded the highest number of free-floating car sharing trips and, with nearly 40 million kilometers driven by shared car in 2022, also had the most used schemes in the country. However, the smaller schemes in Turin were able to achieve higher average numbers of trips per vehicle per day than Milan in 2022. While car sharing in Italy has not yet fully recovered from the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, schemes are expanding again and are expected to continue growing in the coming years.

Having begun life as a manufacturer of radio equipment, Ducati has developed into one of Italy’s best known motorcycle manufacturers throughout its nearly 100-year history. The company was founded outside Bologna in 1926 and remains headquartered in the city. Today the Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. is owned by the Volkswagen Group as an independent brand within the Audi Premium Brand Group. An Italian motorcycle brand. Despite having been bought up by a German automotive group in 2012, Ducati remains an Italian brand with strong ties to its home country. Ducati delivered more than half of its motorcycles to customers in Europe in 2023 and Italy was its leading national market. In 2023, the Italian market generated an annual revenue of close to 156 million euros for Ducati, projected to rise to 164 million euros in 2028. Ducati’s headquarters in Bologna, Italy also remain the company’s primary manufacturing facility. While Ducati operates production facilities in Thailand, Brazil and Argentina, as well, more than four fifths of Ducati motorbikes are produced in Italy. In 2023, these were a total of over 45,600 vehicles. The German market, nonetheless, plays a significant role for the motorcycle manufacturer, constituting its second-largest market. Over a fifth of Ducati sales revenue came from the German market in 2023 at some 99 million euros, which is projected to grow to 110 million euros by 2028. Meanwhile, the largest non-European market for the manufacturer is Australia, which was responsible for about six percent of sales. Motorcycles on difficult terrain. The difficult economic environment in Europe of the past few years has also taken its toll on Ducati. While the company’s operating profit remained high compared to 2019 to 2021, at 112 million euros, revenue slightly declined, yet remained at a higher level than in the years leading up to 2020. Production, meanwhile, was significantly decreased, falling by a fifth compared to the previous year. Especially the two largest segments, the naked and sport cruiser and the dual hyper segments, were affected by this reduction in the number of motorbikes produced. Deliveries remained a little more robust, only declining by around five percent to 58,000 motorbikes. The outlook into the coming years, however, looks more positive, revenue is expected to begin growing again from 2024.

Two of the ten leading car brands in the world are South Korean companies. Manufacturing is a pillar of the country’s economy, and the automotive industry is a key part of the sector. Underlined by its connections to several other major businesses such as displays, semiconductors, and batteries, automotive manufacturing has become one of the nation’s core industries. Starting out by assembling cars in a U.S. military jeep-style body, South Korea is now home to leading automakers such as Hyundai Motor and Kia. South Korean car companies. The prevalence of Hyundai Motor Group, consisting of Hyundai Motor, Kia, and Genesis, is undisputed within the industry. During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Kia merged with Hyundai, and the two companies have provided healthy competition for each other despite being under the same umbrella. Completing the conglomerate is premium brand Genesis, which has established itself among certain consumers. Another domestic producer is KG Mobility, which officially rebranded from Ssangyong Motor in 2023. Foreign automakers in South Korea. Apart from imported car brands, there are three foreign-owned domestic carmakers in the country. All of them have close ties with South Korean companies in their history, with various factors that led to their contemporary ownership. Once among the corporate elite, the fall of Daewoo Group eventually led to the establishment of GM Korea and Tata Daewoo. GM Korea sells models from Chevrolet, while Tata Daewoo focuses on commercial vehicles. In the case of Renault Korea, the French company acquired Samsung Group’s automobile division and included the well-known Korean company’s name in its branding for over two decades before dropping it in 2022. Industry outlook. South Korea’s automotive industry has steadily developed into one of the global leaders. Among its six major domestic automotive manufacturers, Hyundai Motor and Kia are prominent companies with a significant presence. The global industry's pursuit of environmentally friendly vehicles and autonomous driving technology is expected to continue. However, wider economic and geopolitical uncertainty present a challenging framework for companies.

Automobili Lamborghini is finally going electric. The Italian company and subsidiary of the Audi Progressive Brand Group started producing its first plug-in hybrid electric supercar, the Revuelto, in 2022. Deliveries of this model, however, took place until 2024. Lamborghini's first battery-electric vehicle model reported more 1,406 deliveries in that year. Electric vehicles have typically garnered success in the luxury car market, propelled by the financial performance recorded by Tesla since 2020. Luxury cars were a 579 billion euros global market in 2024, a five percent decrease from the year prior but still above 2019 levels. Supercars, a subset of sports cars which are themselves part of the luxury segment, have also been electrifying. Nevertheless, the overall demand for electric vehicles has been slowing down. Lamborghini’s CEO Stephan Winkelmann has gone on record in a 2024 interview, mentioning fully electric sports supercars were not selling so far, which is one of the reasons behind the brand’s cautious approach to electrification. Lamborghini trails behind Audi based on financial performance. Behind the Volkswagen Group’s eponymous passenger car brand, the Audi Progressive Brand Group was the second-best-performing segment of 2023 in terms of both revenue and vehicle sales. That year, Lamborghini reported around 3.1 billion euros in revenue. This was the best fiscal year for the Italian brand since 2020, as it also recorded its highest operating profit across the past four years in 2024 and had a return on sales of 27 percent. The United States was estimated to be Lamborghini’s most prolific market, at approximately 260 million euros in revenue, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom. Around 64 percent of the brand’s vehicle deliveries were made in the U.S. and Europe, which contextualizes this financial performance. However, while this year was successful for Automobili Lamborghini on a brand level, its contribution to the Progressive Brand Group was still below that of Audi. Competition comes from other VW Group subsidiaries. In 2024, Audi was the fourth-best-selling luxury car brand worldwide. Audi was among the Volkswagen Group’s subsidiaries, and is part of the same subsidiary of the German company as Lamborghini, making it one of its competitors. On the sports car market, Lamborghini is also projected to trail behind another one of the VW Group’s subsidiaries, Porsche. As of a December 2024 forecast by Statista’s Market Insights, Porsche was sixth in the global ranking based on its estimated 2024 sports car unit sales, while Lamborghini ranked twentieth. While Automobili Lamborghini recorded a good 2024 performance, it faces steep competition, including from some of the Volkswagen Group’s other subsidiaries. The size of the sports car sales revenue is projected to grow slowly to 85.5 billion in 2029, which puts the impetus on the brand to find ways to innovate.

The automotive industry is home to some of Italy's most iconic and culturally important brands. Italian designs, including the Ferrari Dino 206 GT, are world famous and have remained at the forefront of the modern motor industry. Importance of the vehicle manufacturing sector. Vehicle manufacturing has managed to remain an important sector of the Italian economy, employing around 83,000 workers. Enterprises engaging in the trade and repair of vehicles and motorcycles are expected to generate roughly 180 billion U.S. dollars by 2024. Small cars are a big hit. Typical to the car market in its region, small and medium sized cars are the most popular car segments in Italy. Controversially however, small SUVs (sport utility vehicles) are expected to become the largest segment of the new vehicle market. In terms of propulsion, petrol vehicles continue to dominate the Italian car market. Italy's most popular car brand is Fiat by far. Although nearly two million new passenger cars are registered each year in Italy, sales have started to fall. Decline in the Italian passenger car market is expected to continue throughout 2020, as the European auto industry is being pummeled by the ongoing coronavirus pandemic: New passenger car registrations in European markets cratered in April 2020. The used vehicle market could emerge as one of the segments with the largest potential for growth. Already, the Italian classic car market stands out as one of the world's largest. Over 14 million U.S. dollars are spent in Italy on classic car sales each year.

Concern over where the outdated device will end up might not be the first thing that comes to mind when someone purchases a new smartphone or TV set. With India’s growing population and emerging economy, the usage of telecom, IT, and consumer electronics, as well as home appliances has grown rapidly, especially during the last decade. Consequently, the amount of e-waste generated has also increased. The informal sector in e-waste disposal. In the northeastern outskirts of Delhi lies Mustafabad, one of India’s biggest electronic waste graveyards. Every last bit of an electronic device is stripped down here, to extract not only iron, steel, copper, or aluminum, but also precious metals like gold, silver, and platinum. However, e-waste also contains highly toxic materials, including lead, mercury, and cadmium, which contaminate the environment, and create major ecological issues. Moreover, around 90 percent of all the collected electronic waste was processed informally in places like Mustafabad. This unregulated method of disposal found nationwide heightens the hazards posed by e-waste. Considering that India was the third largest producer of e-waste, behind China and the United States, there is a dire need for formalization. Government reforms. In response to this concern, the Government of India introduced the new E-Waste (Management) Rules in 2022. The rules came into effect on April 1st, 2023. They supersede the previous regulations established in 2016. The new rules have a broader scope of coverage, encompassing overall 100 types of electronic equipment. Under the new regulations, electronics manufacturers are also required to manage their end-of-life products and meet an annual recycling target. The government aimed to achieve 70 percent e-waste collection by the financial year 2024. However, up until 2024, less than half of electronic waste generated in the country was recycled. A stronger push for implementing the new e-waste regulations is key to accelerating the creation of a well-organized sector. It can also help generate both revenue and employment in the long run.

Switzerland is home to 133 enterprises manufacturing motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers as of 2017. Despite a decline in the number of businesses within the industry, the automotive manufacturing industry’s production value reached a peak of 1.62 billion euros in 2016, with figures for 2017 approximately at the level of 2014. Repairs of motor vehicles brought in 54 billion euros in 2016, having increased by 17 percent since the low recorded in 2014. In terms of market size, the repair industry generated 11.27 billion euros in production value. There was a noticeable drop in car sales recorded for 2018. Figures fell to levels last seen in 2010, at 299,716 units sold. However, while new registrations were generally in decline, the number of alternatively fueled cars sold grew prominently by nearly 19 percent between 2017 and 2018. This suggested a greater awareness regarding the environmental impact of combustion engines and pollution, but may have also been the result of more electric vehicle charging stations becoming available. Swiss residents clearly preferred buying German cars. Of the five most sold car brands in 2018, four were German, with Volkswagen taking the lead. Luxury car maker Mercedes came in second, having sold 25,661 units that year.

Japan's total CO₂ emissions exceeded one billion tons annually in the past years, roughly one-fifth of which was caused by the transportation sector. As one of the major CO₂-emitting industries in Japan's economy, the performance of the transportation sector is crucial to Japan's endeavors to reach carbon neutrality by 2050. One of the key methods embraced by the automobile industry in Japan to tackle carbon gas emissions was the widespread introduction of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). In 2024, HEVs were the most-sold car engine types among several of Japan's automobile manufacturing giants on the domestic market, accounting for more than 80 percent in the case of Nissan. Over 60 percent of total new passenger vehicle registrations were HEVs, continuing the growing trend of the past years. Japanese consumers prefer HEVs to other next-generation vehicle types. New technologies in the automobile industry have broadened the spectrum of choice for consumers looking to buy next-generation vehicles. Next to hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are some of the other choices available on the market. However, consumers in Japan overwhelmingly prefer HEVs, with only a fraction of new passenger car registrations comprised of other next-generation vehicle types. In this regard, Japan has set out onto its individual path, compared to other major markets, such as China, the EU, and the United States, all of which have decidedly opted for BEVs as their go-to next-generation vehicle. While new registrations of HEVs surpassed the 50 percent threshold for the first time in 2023, the majority of cars currently in use in Japan still utilise conventional combustion engines. However, data on used vehicle purchases shows that the penetration rate of HEVs was on the rise, with Toyota being the leading automobile brand.  HEVs provide a compromise to consumers. The popularity of hybrid electric vehicles in Japan may be attributed to their ability to represent a compromise. HEVs seem to hit the sweet spot for Japanese consumers who desire to invest in next-generation vehicles while also staying on the safe side by retaining the old and proven propulsion method based on gasoline, as suggested by leading reasons for HEV purchases in surveys. Tax cuts and other monetary incentives by the government, as well as serious investments by Japan's automotive manufacturers in cutting-edge technology, are further reasons the HEV segment has experienced such a meteoric rise in Japan. Whether HEVs alone will be sufficient to contribute enough to Japan's emissions-related ambitions in the long run is uncertain, as HEVs are not zero-emission vehicles. However, the decline of CO₂ emissions in Japan's transportation sector in the past years shows that the strategy to rely on HEVs has had a positive impact.

In March 2024, Mercedes-Benz announced its project to open a new production plant in Zárate, focusing on truck manufacturing and bus chassis fabrication. This news was in stark contrast with the state of the Argentine automotive industry. While the automotive manufacturing sector’s value added to Argentina’s gross domestic product (GDP) reached quarterly performances which were overall higher in 2023 than in 2022, a skyrocketing inflation rate and growing national debt can create an unfavorable business environment for automotive companies. The country’s reliance on light vehicle exports partly offsets the impact of its economic instability on the sector. An industry heavily dependent on international trade. The performance of the Argentine automotive sector in 2023 dependent mostly on the country’s automotive exports and its commercial vehicle sales, which grew by around 22.05 percent year-over-year compared to a growth of around 5.2 percent for passenger car sales. While Argentina still recorded a negative trade balance in 2023, the country has steadily worked on closing the gap between its automotive imports and exports. In 2023, the automotive industry exported some 7.83 billion U.S. dollars, compared to imports worth 8.2 billion U.S. dollars, the lowest since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Brazil remained Argentina’s main trading partner, with 63.7 percent of Argentine exports going to its Latin American neighbor. This dependence on international trade creates various challenges for Argentina. Access to auto parts and raw materials could be a hurdle for the country in the coming years, especially dependent on the evolution of the exchange rate between the Argentine pesos and U.S. dollars. As most automotive companies investing in Argentina are international, these issues have the potential to deeply impact the industry. In 2023, Japanese automotive group Toyota Motor Corporation was the leading producer of motor vehicles in the country, followed by Stellantis’ Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. National challenges impact automotive demand. With the country’s soaring inflation, Argentinian consumer confidence has slowly dwindled, despite 2023 recording the lowest unemployment rate in the previous decade. Around 48 percent of respondents from Argentina in a January to March 2024 survey reported having no intention to purchase a car in the next 12 months, while a quarter were planning to purchase a new car for their next vehicle. However, while the automotive market faced decreased demand and slow growth, electric and hybrid vehicle sales soared in the past years, up by 22.3 percent year-over-year in 2023. In June 2023, a law on investments in the automotive sector including provisions for electric mobility spending was approved, which could further boost the new energy vehicle segment. Argentina’s economic instability, including its high inflation rate and the growing U.S. dollars to Argentine pesos exchange rate, are creating a challenging environment for the country’s automotive sector. As the Argentine automotive industry relies on international trade and investments from foreign automakers, the country’s financial downturn could further impact the sector’s growth.

Operating for over a decade since its founding in 2012, Carvana’s fully online car-buying experience has transformed automotive retail for consumers of used vehicles in the United States. By offering car owners and buyers options to sell and trade in, browse vehicles, finance purchases, and sign closing documents, Carvana aims to eliminate the pain points of traditional car dealerships through its website and mobile app. The Carvana experience. Most Americans looking to purchase a vehicle do their research exclusively at home or online. Carvana attempts to appeal to these consumers with thousands of listings, all with 360 degree product imaging that allows for both exterior and interior viewing. The convenience offered by Carvana extends to secure financing through their proprietary lending platform, transparent pricing, and Carvana’s signature car vending machines that serve as vehicle pick-up locations around the country. Carvana also provides next-day delivery in most markets, same-day delivery in select locations, and purchases abide by a seven-day return policy with limited warranty to reduce the perceived risk of online car purchasing. This convenience-centric business approach worked well for the brand while Carvana focused its strategy on aggressive growth. Following the Covid-19 pandemic, where the used car market experienced a boom, the company has continuously generated over 10 billion U.S. dollars in revenue each year. In 2024, Carvana’s total equity amounted to 1.3 billion U.S. dollars. Bumps in the road. Despite the innovative approach to vehicular retailing, Carvana’s road to success has not been entirely smooth. In 2022, title and registration processing issues, as well as record-keeping discrepancies led to temporary dealer license suspensions and customer complaints in Illinois and Michigan. Additionally, Carvana faced further struggles in relation to post-boom falling prices of used cars, rising loan defaults, and high debt—most of which was taken on to fund rapid expansion and inventory purchasing during the boom. Fears of bankruptcy in 2022 and 2023 resulted in mass layoffs of Carvana employees, alongside AI-driven logistics optimization to further reduce costs and improve efficiency. While this strategy shift towards cost management has allowed Carvana to recover from potential bankruptcy—as indicated by CVNA’s rebounding stock price—the company still faces market uncertainty and operational challenges that threaten lasting stability.

LNG accounts for more than 40 percent of natural gas supply to Europe. Since the Russia-Ukraine war, the role of LNG in Europe’s energy industry has grown tremendously. Though countries like Spain and the United Kingdom already had a well-established LNG infrastructure, since 2022 other European countries, chief among them Germany, have begun investing heavily in terminals and regasification units. Already, European countries have become some of the world’s major LNG importing countries. Import infrastructure. Europe as a continent has historically been largely dependent on natural gas traded via pipelines, with the majority originating in Russia. However, the Russia-Ukraine war has caused great disruption to gas trade in Europe and brought the LNG market into renewed focus. Liquefying natural gas by cooling it to around minus 162 degrees Celsius allows for gas to be transported to consumer markets far away from producing sites. LNG trading is realized via shipping vessels, with the regasification process occurring at the receiving terminal. These terminals may be either onshore regasification plants or floating storage regasification units (FSRU’s) anchored at the harbor. Once regasified, natural gas enters pipeline distribution systems for end-user delivery. Europe currently houses 57 operational LNG import terminals, of which the majority are onshore facilities. The largest LNG import terminal is located in Milford Haven, United Kingdom, with an annual capacity of 15 million metric tons. As of 2024, the TES Wilhelmshaven terminal in Germany is the largest LNG import terminal project, with an expected annual capacity of 20 billion cubic meters. Trading partners and LNG price benchmark launch. Although many European countries are reliant on LNG supplies, Russia and Norway are the only two LNG exporters on the European continent. The United States is the leading exporter of LNG to Europe, having surpassed Qatar in recent years. France receives the greatest LNG import volume of any country in Europe. The growing importance of LNG to the European energy market has also led to the establishment of distinct price benchmarks. Next to the European Union launched LNG benchmark, which determines price performance based on DES LNG spot prices and the Dutch TTF future price, there are distinct price assessments for the Northwest European market and Southwest European market.

The used vehicle market is a relatively elusive segment of the India’s automotive industry, and not because of size or lack of interest from consumers and businesses. It is mostly because the majority of the market is dominated by the unorganized sector, with transactions conducted by roadside mechanics, small brokers, and among car owners. The market volume of used cars in India has surpassed five million units in the financial year 2023. This makes it one of the largest used vehicle markets in the world, not far behind some of the more mature markets, including Japan. Hatchback still rules. The sales trend in the used vehicle market is slightly different in comparison to the new vehicle sector in India. While hatchbacks have lost their dominance in the new car market in recent years, they still account for a significant part of the country’s used vehicle market. One main reason is that hatchbacks tend to be at the more affordable, making used hatchbacks an excellent deal for consumers on a budget. This is especially true considering the boost in personal mobility solutions post the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, as the most popular new car body type once upon a time, the used vehicle market has a huge pool of hatchbacks to draw its supply from. A more organized market for used vehicles. There has been a general shift towards a more organized system. Organized players are gaining Indian consumers’ trust by providing greater transparency, higher reliability, easier access to financing options, and better customer service, in comparison with the unorganized sector. Transactions in the unorganized sector usually happen between individual buyers and sellers connected through personal networks, or via unorganized dealers, leaving room for potential trust issues. It was estimated that by the financial year 2028, close to half of the used vehicle market would be run by the organized sector. By lowering the bar for people to become car owners, the organized sector is becoming more popular, especially in the metro areas. There are mainly two types of players in this organized sector. The first one is the certified used car dealerships from established OEMs, like True Value from Maruti Suzuki, Mahindra First Choice, and Das WeltAuto, the used car business of Volkswagen in India. The other type is online marketplaces dedicated to used vehicles like Cars24, Spinny, and CarDekho. As the used car market is expected to have robust growth in India, driven by a rising middle class and the country’s young population, established players are pushing for more presence in this market. They will steadily transform the Indian used vehicle market into a more organized sector.

Norway is Europe’s largest producer of oil and gas, following Russia. Commercial drilling commenced in the early 1970s along the Norwegian continental shelf and encompasses offshore activities in the North Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Barent Sea. Today, the oil and gas industry is one of the country’s most significant – regularly contributing around 20 percent to Norway's total GDP. Norway’s gas production supports consumers in Europe. In terms of output, natural gas production in Norway is particularly bountiful, with the country among the largest 10 gas producers in the world. Multiple pipeline networks cross the North Sea, connecting extraction platforms with refiners and consumer markets in continental Europe and the United Kingdom. Of these, gas pipelines are not only the most ubiquitous, but also the ones with the greatest length and capacity. The Franpipe to Dunkirk in France is the longest pipeline run by Norwegian operators, at some 840 kilometers. Meanwhile, the pipeline with the greatest export relevance is the Europipe to Germany, as it carries around 30 billion standard cubic meters per year. Equinor is industry leader. Norway’s oil and gas industry is spearheaded by the partly state-owned enterprise Equinor (formerly known as Statoil), which oversees much of the drilling operations on the continental shelf. It currently has more than 200 operatorships in Norwegian waters, with natural gas being its most profitable product segment. Overall, Norway's oil and gas market value has grown steadily in the past few years, with forecasts suggesting it could climb to more than 70 billion U.S. dollars by 2030.

Porsche belongs among the most famous luxury and sports car brands in the world, known for the high performance and reliability of their cars. In 2009, Porsche merged with Volkswagen, creating an integrated working group. The Porsche brand is thus currently a part of the Volkswagen Group’s portfolio, together with the vehicle brands Audi, Volkswagen, Seat, Škoda Auto, MAN, and others. In 2023, the Volkswagen Group generated a total revenue of over 322 billion euros, with Porsche contributing some 37 billion euros, trailing only the Volkswagen and Audi car brands and proving its significance to the group. Porsche’s revenue increased by over 43 percent between 2020 and 2023, reflecting a larger trend of growth in the luxury car market. In 2023, the global luxury car market was sized at some 635 billion euros, an increase of over 26 percent compared to 503 billion euros in 2020. Rising demand for Porsche. Deliveries of Porsche cars have been growing in the last decade, with the exception of 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic broke out. In 2023, Porsche deliveries peaked at more than 320,000 vehicles. The majority of these vehicles—some 86,000—found new owners in North America, followed by China with over 79,000 deliveries that year. The most popular models among customers were the Cayenne and Macan in 2023, with sales of over 87,000 each. Both models are luxury SUVs more suitable for daily use, as compared to other Porsche models. Among the sports models, Porsche 911 ranked as the most sought-after model that year with some 50,00 deliveries. History of Porsche. Founded in 1931 in Stuttgart, Germany by Ferdinand Porsche, a high-end and race car designer, the company was initially contracted by the state to develop a car for the masses. This car later became the Volkswagen Beetle and led to the creation of the Volkswagen brand. During the second world war, Porsche’s efforts were focused on the development of tanks and weaponry for the German army. With the fall of the Nazi Germany, Porsche’s car manufacturing activities resumed and in the following decades, the company went on to produce various sport cars models, gaining its popularity among car enthusiasts. In 2002, Porsche introduced its first SUV model—the Cayenne—followed by a compact crossover SUV—the Macan—in 2014. Porsche has also been producing a battery electric car—the Taycan—since 2019. In 2024, Porsche was perceived as the second most sustainable German brand in the world.

In March 2024, Swedish climate tech unicorn start-up Northvolt opened an electric car battery plant in Germany. The startup, which was the only European company among the five most highly valued climate tech unicorns in 2024, represents only one aspect of Sweden’s growing electric vehicle industry. Battery-electric car sales rose in the country in 2023, following a pattern of consecutive growth recorded since at least 2010. Sweden was the largest market in the Nordics for electric vehicles based on sales volume and among the countries with the highest market share of electric vehicles in Europe. However, while the country is taking active strides to decarbonize its transport sector, various challenges impact the EV market. Small petrol cars remain cheaper than electric vehicles. In November 2022, the Swedish government rolled back its climate bonus program (Klimatbonus), which subsidized the purchase of electric cars in the country. New electric vehicle purchase incentives were perceived by 59 percent of drivers in Sweden to have a medium to high impact on their potential decision to drive a fully electric car. This consumer opinion is not without reason. While the cost of electric car ownership across 10 years tended to be lower than the cost of ownership of a petrol sport-utility vehicle across that same period, small petrol cars were the most affordable option for Swedish buyers. Concurrently, new plug-in hybrid electric vehicle registrations dropped in 2022 and 2023, following a different trend from battery-electric vehicles’ (BEVs) success. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which tended to have an average cost of ownership higher than BEVs, were only surpassed by all-electric cars based on fleet volume in 2023. While the propulsion type had lost popularity, Swedes still drove nearly 456.5 Scandinavian miles in a PHEV in 2023, making it the third fuel type by vehicle-miles traveled behind diesel and petrol. The public charging network is focused on areas with high population density. Around 65 percent of company car drivers in Sweden who would not choose to own an electric car as their company vehicles mentioned the too few charging stations in the country as one of the reasons behind that choice. Sweden’s public charging infrastructure tended to be concentrated in counties with a higher population density and the largest electric vehicle fleet. Stockholm, which was the most densely populated county in Sweden, had around 832 public charging stations available as of July 2024. It was followed by Skåne and Västra Götaland, which also topped the population density and EV fleet rankings. This pattern can create disparities outside urban areas, where the charging network is sparser, and within urban areas, where the amount of charging points must meet the needs of a growing electric vehicle fleet as home charging can be less accessible. The expanding Swedish electric vehicle market faces various hurdles to its growth, including but not limited to consumers’ perceptions of the end of the climate bonus and the development of its charging network. External factors, such as inflation and carmakers’ focus on larger, more premium EVs with higher costs of ownership, can further influence the market.

Following the exit of major Western automotive manufacturers, Russia left the ranking of the leading automotive producers worldwide. Moreover, as part of the sanctions in response to the war in Ukraine, the European Union (EU), the United States, the United Kingdom (UK), and Japan banned exports of luxury cars to Russia in March 2022. In recent years, the Russian market has been dominated by Chinese and domestic brands. Exodus of foreign car manufacturers from Russia. International automotive companies like Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, BMW, Toyota Motor, Nissan, General Motors, Audi, Škoda, and many others limited their operations temporarily or permanently left the Russian market in 2022, thus affecting thousands of employees. For instance, Renault Group counted about 45,000 employees in Russia before leaving the market. In general, there were nearly 60,000 employees in automotive companies that suspended operations in the country. Volkswagen, Renault Group, and Toyota Motor were among the highest-earning foreign companies in Russia before the war. Passenger cars. Despite the international restrictions, the Russian car market is expected to grow in the following years and reach over 409,000 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants in 2028. Moscow accounts for the largest passenger car parc nationwide, followed by the Moscow Oblast and the Krasnodar Krai. Lada is the leading brand by new registrations, ranking ahead of Haval and Geely. Lada vehicles are produced by the Russian company AvtoVaz, which was co-owned by Renault until May 2022. The French company, which used to hold 68 percent of stakes of AvtoVaz, sold them to the Russian Central Research and Development Automobile and Engine Institute, a state entity, for one Russian ruble. The transfer agreement reportedly included a clause with an option for Renault to buy its shares back within six years. Commercial vehicles. The production volume of commercial vehicles and trucks is considerably lower than that of passenger cars in Russia. Domestic manufacturers of commercial vehicles outnumber foreign companies in terms of production. Gaz and Uaz are the leading manufacturers of light commercial vehicles nationwide, while Kamaz dominates the heavy commercial vehicle segment. All three companies are headquartered in Russia. Outlook. Passenger car sales revenue in Russia is forecast to rebound in 2024, with sport utility vehicles (SUVs) remaining the major segment. In terms of unit sales, the volume is projected to increase gradually until 2028 and exceed 2021 levels in that year. In the light commercial vehicle (LCV) segment, the market will see a growth in production in 2025.

Although the commercial vehicle segment is one of the smaller segments in the Indian automotive sector, it has carved a place for itself to be among the leading commercial vehicle markets across the Asia Pacific region. The commercial vehicle segment in India is strongly associated with other business sectors, usually causing it to be the first one to face the impact and the last one to recover. Segments. Commercial vehicles in India are segmented by the gross vehicle weight. Primarily, the two categories are light commercial vehicles and medium and heavy commercial vehicles. The former, which has a gross vehicle weight of less than 7.5 metric tons, dominated this sector. Small commercial vehicles, boosted the growth of this segment. A rise in the e-commerce sector, rural consumption, an increase in last-mile connectivity, and a lower total cost of ownership value pillared the growth of this market. New infrastructure projects and fleet replacement were also among the reason for demand creation. Major players. The leading players in the commercial vehicle segment across India were Tata Motors and Mahindra and Mahindra Limited, with the former leading the domestic market. Other players included Ashok Leyland, Eicher Motors, SML Isuzu Limited, Force India, and Daimler India Commercial Vehicle Private Limited. The latter sold its vehicles under the brand name ‘BharatBenz’ and had a small market share. The future of commercial vehicles in transportation sector. More than half of the nation's freight is transported by road, making commercial vehicles a critical pillar of freight movement. Partially, it was due to the insufficient capacity, low efficiency, reliability and flexibility of the railways industry. However, this might change as the central government has increased investment in the rail infrastructure in recent years. Commercial vehicles are used not only for freight, but also for passenger transportation. With the increasing use of public transportation in the country, the demand for commercial passenger vehicles is expected to continue to grow in the foreseeable future.

In the mid-twentieth century, public buses were one of the main modes of transportation in the United Kingdom. However, in the years since, the total distance travelled annually by bus or coach within Great Britain has been declining, with figures in 2018 only half the size of those reported in 1960. Today, London is the area seeing the most number of passenger journeys by far, accounting for 45 percent of all passenger journeys in Great Britain. Though overall figures have still been decreasing in recent years. Of bus users, those between 30 and 49 years old spent the most on fares, with an average weekly expenditure of 2.5 British pounds in 2019. Regional bus market. Most buses in the United Kingdom are operated by the so-called Big 5, which consist of FirstGroup, Stagecoach Group, Go-Ahead Group, National Express and Arriva. In their 2020 financial year, FirstGroup generated 835.9 million British pounds in revenue through its First Bus business segment. By comparison, the Stagecoach Group had made more than one billion British pounds in revenue from its regional operation of buses and an additional 246.2 million British pounds from bus services in London. Bus manufacturers. In 2020, the leading manufacturers of buses and coaches, as determined by new registrations, were Ford and Mercedes. In the second quarter of 2020, registration figures for Ford amounted to only 74, an increase compared to the same quarter one year prior. The oldest public buses were operated in non-metropolitan areas of England, at 8.4 years, while buses in London were more than two years younger on average.

Lyft entered the sharing economy transportation market in 2012 challenging the position of Uber. Since its launch, Lyft has attempted to compete with Uber. However, while Lyft is the second largest ride-hailing provider globally, holding a market share of 8 percent in 2022, the company only operates in the United States and Canada. Meanwhile, Uber has expanded globally and controls a quarter of the global ride-hailing and taxi market. Like Uber, Lyft has expanded its offering in the sharing economy beyond its core business of ride-hailing. It also offers bike and e-scooter sharing services under a variety of brands in multiple U.S. cities. Lyft also introduced food delivery services, during the COVID-19 pandemic, which have since been dropped. Sharing economy organizations challenge traditional businesses by utilizing high-tech solutions to offer tailor-made services to customers. Ridesharing is one of the main services provided by this market. Ridesharing services offer the comfort and convenience of individualized transport services through an app-interface. In 2023, there were roughly 1.7 billion ride-hailing service users globally and this figure is projected to rise to nearly 2.3 billion by 2029. Lyft struggling to increase customer base. Lyft’s ridership collapsed at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. Between the fourth quarter of 2019, the last quarter largely unaffected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the second quarter of 2020, the company’s number of active riders dropped by 62 percent. Prior to this point, active ridership numbers had been on a steady trend of growth. Lyft regained riders throughout 2020 and 2021, but this growth began stagnating towards the end of 2021 and the company has only just been able to regain the riders lost during the pandemic. As of the fourth quarter of 2023, the number of active riders remained at around 98 percent of active riders recorded in Q4 of 2019. However, Lyft has been able to reduce its net loss compared to the pandemic years to around 340 million U.S. in 2023. While Lyft has remained unprofitable, its competitor Uber was able to to post a net profit of nearly 1.9 billion U.S. dollars in the same year. Diversifying the shared mobility offering. As the ride-hailing market has matured and the companies operating these services have established themselves, they have begun to expand into other sharing service markets. Lyft’s primary competitor Uber has invested in delivery services, which now account for nearly a third of its revenue. Both companies have also expanded into the shared micro-mobility sector. Lyft operates bike-sharing and electric scooter sharing schemes in several cities in the United States and is the market leader for bike hire in the U.S., holding a market share of 28 percent. While Uber does not own a micro-mobility business, Lime and JUMP electric scooters and e-bikes can be hired through the Uber app, with Lime being one of the main competitors to Lyft in the U.S. shared micro-mobility markets.

Roads are a crucial mode of transport in India. As of year 2020, India had around 4.7 million kilometers of roads, making it the third largest road network in the world, after the U.S. and China. With both freight and passenger transport, road transport dominates the sectors in the country. In addition, with increasing number of vehicles, and rising passenger and freight movements, road transport will continue to play the central role in India’s transport sector. National highways. National highways in India was close to 145 thousand kilometers in financial year 2023. Even though this figure makes up for around two percent of the country’s total road network, it is responsible for about 40 percent of the road traffic. This includes over 30 percent of total road accidents and almost 36 percent of road accidents related deaths in the country. Noticeably, national highways in India are at-grade roads, meaning, that access to them is not controlled. Conversely, the highest class of roads in India with controlled access were expressways, which amounted to around six thousand kilometers of roads across the country at the end of 2024.   Automotive industry in India. India was one of the leading countries in the world relative to vehicle production. In financial year 2024, the total production volume of vehicles in the country was around 28.4 million units. During that same year, around 23.8 million units were sold across the country. The majority of vehicles manufactured and sold in India are two-wheelers, with Hero MotoCorp leading this segment. Maruti Suzuki and Tata Motors dominate the passenger and commercial vehicle segments respectively.

In Europe in 2015, the most commonly purchased tractor brand was John Deere, with the U.S. tractor producer accounting for approximately 18.6 percent of the 169,500 tractors that were sold within the continent. When looking at companies which manufactured tractors, however, John Deere only came in third place after finishing behind Case New Holland (CNH) Industrial, with 24.1 percent of the market, and AGCO, with a 20.7 percent share. Of tractor manufacturers which are based in Europe, CNH Industrial had the highest annual revenue, at approximately 25.33 billion US. dollars in 2016. The U.S.- based manufacturer AGCO, which owns the prominent Finnish brand Valtra and the German brand Fendt, generated a revenue of 7.4 billion U.S. dollars. Other European manufacturers of tractors include Zetro from Czechia and the Italian manufacturers Same Deutz-Fahr, Argo and Carraro. In 2015, the three countries with the largest markets for tractors in Europe were France, Germany and Italy, which combined for more than half of the tractor sales on the continent. These three countries, particularly Italy and Germany, also had very strong tractor industries with eight of the sixteen most popular brands in Europe originating in these nations. Of the other eight most popular brands, three of them came from other European countries (Valtra, Zetor, and Steyr), while four American brands and one Japanese brand also claimed at least one percent of the European market.

The automotive industry in South Korea can be divided into two main categories: the passenger car market and the commercial vehicle market. While the passenger car market has comparatively livelier scene of competition, this was not necessarily the case for the commercial vehicle market. After some corporate shifts, the commercial vehicle segment has displayed stability in terms of competing companies and demand. Hyundai Motor Group leads the market. As expected for the largest players in the domestic automotive market, Hyundai Motor Company and Kia were the leading South Korean commercial vehicle manufacturers. The dominance of Hyundai Motor Group’s two companies is reflected in the domestic unit sales of commercial vehicles. The global conglomerate has production operations for various commercial vehicles such as vans, trucks, and buses in addition to their passenger car models. How did Daewoo Motors split into separate companies? Now defunct, Daewoo Motors was once in the upper echelon of South Korea's corporate landscape as a part of the conglomerate Daewoo Group, even giving Hyundai Motor a run for its money as a fellow automaker. Unfortunately, its parent company ran into several troubles during the Asian financial crisis that hit South Korea in the late 1990s, and Daewoo Motors was ultimately split up. Currently, the legacy of Daewoo Motors remains in two companies: the passenger car division GM Korea is a subsidiary of General Motors, and the truck division is now known as Tata Daewoo Commercial Vehicle under the ownership of the Tata Group. The bus division was succeeded by Zyle Daewoo Bus which has since shut down in 2022. Additional domestic manufacturers. Another company that was formerly owned by Daewoo Motors was SsangYong Motor, now known as KG Mobility. The automaker's pickup truck ranked highly in the list of best-selling models for the company. In the van segment, Renault Korea offered a competitive models for prospective buyers of commercial vehicles. Nevertheless, these two companies were very much focused on the production of passenger cars rather than commercial vehicles. As electric mobility continues to gain a head of steam, ambitious newcomers such as Edison Motors have entered the electric commercial vehicles, although it has subsequently rebranded as KGM Commercial after being taken over by KG Group.

The road network in Japan adds up to a length of more than 1.28 million kilometers, including thousands of bridges and tunnels due to the mountainous nature of the archipelago. Roads contribute to economic activity and are indispensable for natural disaster relief. Yearly investments in public roads were somewhere around six trillion Japanese yen in the last years. In the context of Japan’s demographic development, planning, financing, and executing road maintenance will remain an issue. Which kind of roads are there in Japan? The network has a hierarchical structure that broadly classifies municipal roads, prefectural roads, national highways, and national expressways. Their classification is based on their function and implicates their jurisdiction, administrator, and financing. On the bottom of this pyramid-like hierarchy, municipal roads account for around 85 percent of the total network length. The municipalities administrate them and carry costs for the development, improvement, maintenance, and repair. The national government may subsidize up to half of most costs. The same rules apply to prefectural roads, accounting for roughly 11 percent of the network. The next higher category is national highways. They may either be under prefectural (ca. 2.6 percent) or national (ca. 1.9 percent) jurisdiction, and the administrator may be the Minister of Land, Infrastructure Transport and Tourism (MLIT), the prefectures, or the cities designated by government ordinance. Accordingly, the burdens are shouldered - to a higher or lower degree - by the national government. On top of the pyramid are the national expressways, Japan’s roads for high-speed, supra-regional traffic (ca. 0.7 percent). By law, the administrator is the MLIT. However, the vast majority is not under MLIT jurisdiction but is toll roads under the control of the Expressway Companies (NEXCO). NEXCOs: Privatized road infrastructure. The NEXCOs came into being through the privatization of public bodies. NEXCO East, NEXCO Central, NEXCO West, Metropolitan Expressway, Hanshin Expressway, and Honshu-Shikoku Expressway construct, renew, and manage expressways in exchange for the right to collect toll fees. They pursue the repayment of debts accumulated by the government in years preceding privatization. The laws encompassing privatization declared September 30, 2065, as the expiration date of the leasing contracts with the Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency (JEHDRA). NEXCOs may earn revenues with toll fees but also other businesses. They operate facilities on their routes, offering rest areas, gas, food, playgrounds, et cetera. Toll fees can be paid in cash, but many vehicles are equipped with Electronic Toll Collection (ETC). Hopes are that privatization has created incentives to minimize costs and the toll system has ensured the cost burden is carried by those using the roads - not by taxpayers in general. MLIT infrastructure expenses are nonetheless expected to increase until fiscal 2044. On the other hand, municipalities struggling with demographic change and depopulation will have to find a way to finance and execute maintenance of likewise aging road infrastructure.

The machinery industry in Japan belongs to the leading ones worldwide. This is largely down to the country's world-renowned automotive and heavy industries, whose complex products have boosted the development of equally complex machinery. However, with the growing integration of information technology within these industries, less-related machinery segments like surveying instruments and production machinery become tighter intertwined. From boilers to X-ray machines: The range of Japanese machinery. The Japan Machinery Federation (JMF) distinguishes general machinery, electrical machinery, information and communication equipment, electronic parts and devices, transport equipment, and precision machinery. In Japan, the highest production value among machinery represents transport equipment, especially automobiles. General machinery refers to machines mainly for industrial use that facilitate manufacturing processes. Sometimes, one subdivides this category into general-purpose machinery, production equipment, and industrial machinery. Electrical machinery includes, amongst others, household appliances. Information and communications equipment is a subcategory of electrical machinery but is separately listed due to its particular purpose. Electronic parts and devices are the basic components used to build electronic circuits, thereby distinguishing themselves from other machinery composed of numerous parts. As those last three categories are closely related, they are often summarized under electrical machinery. Lastly, precision machinery designates various measurement and surveying instruments (cameras, microscopes, medical devices, etc.).  Next steps of automation: Moving towards the Internet of Things (IoT). Despite this plethora of machinery types, the common ground of machinery has allowed manufacturers like Toyota to move from weaving machines to passenger cars. Today, their know-how even transgresses autonomous vehicles: Toyota is among the leading robotics patent owners worldwide. Other Japanese manufacturers, like Honda and Tokyo Electron, also position themselves in the global top ten. Large-size Japanese companies like these and their many small and mid-size affiliates push the trend towards automation on factory floors even further by integrating more and more information technology. Promoted through the broadband cellular network 5G, 'smart factories' have already become a reality, where, for example, sensor-equipped production assets integrate into the central business infrastructure. The idea is to process big data in the Internet of Things using software tools. Industrial IoT may significantly increase quality but reduce costs, risks, and time by predicting maintenance, monitoring assets, managing remotely, improving logistics, or employing digital twins to simulate production. If Japanese manufacturers keep up their entrepreneurial spirit in automation, they will likely remain at the forefront of the global machinery industry.

The number of people with a driver’s license in the United States grew from around 167 million in 1990 to approximately 222 million in 2016. Currently, women account for some 51 percent of licensed drivers in the U.S. When buying a car, drivers in the U.S. tend to prefer Asian manufacturers and the Big Three American carmakers: General Motors, Ford, and FCA. Although FCA was created through a merger between Chrysler and Fiat, the carmaker is often considered to be a U.S. company. In 2018, about 2.5 million Ford cars and almost three million General Motors vehicles were sold to customers in the United States. The most successful foreign OEM was Toyota, with sales of around two million vehicles under its Toyota brand in 2018. Tesla's electric sedans have also gained in popularity. The Californian company delivered almost a quarter million of vehicles between January and December of 2018.

Founded in 1910 in Japan, Hitachi Ltd. is a multinational electrical engineering company. The Tokyo-headquartered conglomerate has undergone restructuring within the past years to focus on a core business promoting “social innovation” and bundling its competencies in operational technology (OT) and information technology (IT) with hardware solutions, mainly in social infrastructure (energy, finance, railway, etc.) and industrial applications (manufacturing, robotics, etc.). Products range from wind power turbines to consulting services. Streamlining the business with divestments. Hitachi divested a number of its subsidiaries to strengthen its profile. After selling Hitachi Transport Systems, the latest step was to announce selling off shares of Hitachi Construction Machinery within 2022, becoming an equity-method affiliate with around 25 percent ownership by Hitachi. The following divestment is the complete sales of Hitachi Metals by the end of the fiscal year ending in 2023. According to Hitachi, it uses income from those sales to fund, among others, investments in its core business. Segment restructuring to reflect corporate goals. In the latest mid-term management plan, the company has outlined its principles "digital", "green", and "innovation", referring to IT, environmental technologies, and immense research and development (R&D) of products such as medical devices. Accordingly, the company has transformed its business segments as of April 1, 2022, into "Digital Systems & Services", "Green Energy & Mobility", "Connective Industries", and “Automotive Systems”. The latter comprises subsidiary Hitachi Astemo mainly, whose name stands for “ a dvanced s ustainable te chnologies for mo bility”, electric vehicle powertrains, for example. "Digital Systems & Services" encompasses all businesses of the former IT segment; "Green Energy & Mobility" is the former energy segment, including the railway systems business unit; and "Connective Industries" subsumes all remaining business units. However, the flagship business of Hitachi is not linked directly to a single segment or business unit. What is Lumada? While promoting the perks of the Internet of Things (IoT), Hitachi “illuminates data” for its clients with its “Lumada” business: tailor-made digital transformation solutions for companies comprising system integration, digital engineering, managed services, and connected products. For manufacturing companies, for example, Hitachi offers hardware capable of controlling industrial machinery and simultaneously processing quickly many operational data. The data is then saved on Hitachi hardware and uploaded onto cloud services, connecting the client's OT and IT infrastructure via a platform that processes and visualizes the data. In the process, artificial intelligence analyzes digital twins created by sourced data, suggesting solutions that Hitachi can use for consulting services and technological solutions. In a circular process, the client, in turn, may implement this feedback to improve its operations with the technical support of Hitachi.

Natural gas is one of the commodities most affected by the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Russia's second-major source of fossil fuel revenue after oil, it had an export value of over 145 billion euros between February 24, 2022, and June 18, 2024. Russia is the second-largest natural gas producer in the world, with most reserves located in West Siberia and the Volga-Ural provinces. Furthermore, the country ranks second among gas exporters, primarily via pipelines. Russian gas exports during the war in Ukraine. The U.S. completely banned energy imports from Russia, while European countries pledged to reduce their reliance on Russian gas by diversifying imports, saving energy, and using more renewables. In its 14th sanctions package, the European Union (EU) prohibited transshipment of Russian liquefied natural gas (LNG) via EU members into third countries; however, several EU countries continue to purchase pipeline gas and LNG from Russia. Moreover, the share of Russian gas in extra-EU imports increased in the first three months of 2024 relative to the previous quarter, which could be explained by lower prices. While Ukraine still transits Russian gas to European countries, it stopped operating one of the transit points, Sokhranivka, due to safety reasons. As global gas prices sharply increased after the start of the war in Ukraine, Gazprom, Russia's largest gas producer and the only company exporting pipeline gas, reported its highest revenue in 2022, with China and Turkey being the leading export destinations. However, in 2023, Gazprom reported a net loss for the first time in the 2000s due to a decline in demand from Europe. LNG prospects in Russia. In 2022, Russia exported over 40 billion cubic meters of LNG, ranking fourth after Qatar, Australia, and the U.S. The exports sharply increased between 2018 and 2020, while the 2022 shipments grew only slightly. The leading importers of Russian LNG by volume are China, Japan, and Spain. Novatek's Yamal LNG and Gazprom's Sakhalin-II are Russia's largest LNG projects up to date, while more projects are being planned, including Arctic LNG 2 and Baltic LNG. Even though several Western nations reduced or completely suspended imports of Russian natural gas via pipelines, Russia's gas export revenue was not largely impacted by the Western sanctions in 2022 due to increased gas prices. However, the industry saw the negative impact of the restrictions reflected in Gazprom's net loss in 2023 and the decrease in production. The ban on LNG transshipment via EU countries might further decrease the industry's earnings; at the same time, the planned LNG initiatives could expand Russia's LNG export capacity and thus enable higher exports.

Boasting the eighth-largest car market in Europe, the Netherlands was progressing towards recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, global automotive semiconductor shortage, and high inflation rate of the previous years. Parts of the automotive industry are, however, recovering faster than others. Passenger car sales remained below pre-pandemic levels in 2023, while truck sales had surpassed that threshold. The number of car companies in the country has been consistently decreasing since 2019, a sign that the passenger car segment faces various challenges, despite its 2023 growth. Dutch trucks in demand in the domestic and international market. The Dutch trade of motor vehicles illustrates one of the challenges the passenger car sector faced. While exports and imports of passenger cars and goods vehicles increased between 2022 and 2023, the Netherlands recorded a negative passenger car trade balance: The country imported around 14.1 billion euros worth of motor cars in 2023, compared to car exports of around 6.2 billion euros. In contrast, the Dutch commercial vehicle trade had a positive trade balance. In the domestic market, Dutch brands also benefited from a strong popularity: DAF Trucks was the best-selling make for commercial vehicles above six metric tons, holding over 30 percent of the market. DAF also recorded success in Europe, holding around 15.6 percent of the heavy truck market in 2023. Consumer behavior impacts the passenger car market. Amidst rising car prices, buying intentions are fluctuating. As of June 2024, around 39 percent of Dutch online consumers were planning to purchase a car in the next 12 months. This share was at 42 percent in June 2022, and 44 percent as of mid-year 2023. Despite high levels of satisfaction with the brand of their main vehicles, 44 percent of consumers further reported being likely or very likely to change the make of their main car on the next possible occasion. These two factors create a highly competitive market for car brands looking to sell in the country. In 2023, Volkswagen was the best-selling car brand in the Netherlands, with Kia not far behind in terms of sales volume. However, Tesla’s Model Y was the leading model in the country, at nearly 13,800 vehicles sold that year. The Netherlands has been slowly shifting to electric vehicles, which reached their highest market share in 2023. However, despite this progress in fleet electrification, petrol remained the preferred propulsion type most consumers would consider when buying a new car. While the automotive industry in the Netherlands has been recovering from the external challenges it faced in the previous years, some segments are performing better than others. With a negative trade balance and a sales volume that did not surpass pre-pandemic levels, the passenger car sector has encountered hurdles to its growth. Electric cars have risen in popularity, but consumer preferences could influence this progression.

The electronics industry is one of the most impactful industries in the manufacturing sector in Thailand. In 2023, electronics products were among Thailand’s main exported products, amounting to over 33 billion U.S. dollars in value. In order to become a high-tech industrial hub, the Thai government has been making significant investments in the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC), with smart electronics being one of the most important sectors. The EEC project, which spans the three eastern provinces of Chonburi, Rayong, and Chachoengsao, is an important driver in attracting FDI and promoting Thailand's Industry 4.0 strategy. The competitiveness of Thailand’s electronics manufacturing industry. Thailand is considered a hub for electronics manufacturing worldwide. However, with only two to three percent market share of the global electronics exports, Thailand’s electronics manufacturing industry is relatively small compared to other regions like China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. In the past years, there seemed to be several advantages for electronics production in Thailand, such as low-cost labor, being at the center of the ASEAN region, and being in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). But, with rapidly changing technologies and higher cost of labor, Thailand has struggled to be competitive against other neighboring countries like Vietnam and Malaysia. As of the third quarter of 2024, the manufacturing production index (MPI) of the electronics industry in Thailand stood at 65 points. Leading electronics manufacturers in Thailand. Most large-sized electronics manufacturers in Thailand produce integrated circuits and parts of hard disk drives, diodes, transistors, semiconductors, and capacitors. However, small and medium-scaled electronics manufacturers are limited in their technology development ability, producing lower-cost products such as parts and printers for HDDs, cables, and computer parts and equipment. Electronics manufacturers in the country are mostly international companies or joint ventures such as Seagate Technology (Thailand) Ltd. and Western Digital (Thailand) Co., Ltd. As for domestic electronics manufacturers, some of the leading manufacturers are Delta Electronics PCL, Hana Microelectronics PCL, SVI PCL, and KCE Electronics PCL. In 2023, the total revenue generated by Delta Electronics PCL was the highest, amounting to 148 billion Thai baht.

The popularity of the sport utility vehicle (SUV) segment has been increasing since the early 90s of the past century, with the Toyota RAV4 remaining the first of the best-selling SUV models worldwide in 2020. In nine years, the volume of SUVs in operation worldwide increased by close to six times the 2010 volume, reaching 200 million units in 2019. SUVs represented some 29.6 million global car sales a year later, in 2020, with electric SUVs adding another 1.1 million units sold. This sizeable market is largely credited to the Jeep brand, which launched its first product in 1945 and is now owned by Stellantis. Slow shifts in the worldwide market. Between January and June 2019, every third passenger vehicle sold was a sport utility vehicle. During that time, China and the United States have emerged as the largest SUV markets, with Germany being the leading European market. U.S. quarterly SUV sales between the first quarter of 2020 and 2021 have overall increased., with the Toyota RAV4 and Honda CR-V leading the sales. By June 2021, SUVs represented around 8.8 percent of the total U.S. light vehicle market, behind crossovers, pickups, and small cars. Concurrently, sales of SUVs and off-road vehicles in Germany topped 930,000 units in 2020, with SUVs recording the highest volume of new registrations. German automakers were also the most successful European car manufacturers in China, with the Volkswagen Tiguan ranking fifth for the best-selling SUV models in China in 2020. However, the Chinese market was already grappling with a stalling auto market before the coronavirus pandemic. The COVID-19 market downturn. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic was most visible in the revenues of leading SUV producers. In 2019, Toyota and Volkswagen recorded the highest brand value, at over 52 and 41 billion U.S. dollars respectively. Toyota’s net revenue dropped to under 30 trillion Japanese yen (around 271.9 billion U.S. dollars, with an exchange rate of 1 Japanese yen equal to 0.0091 U.S. dollars as of August 23rd, 2021) in 2020 and had fallen again by 2021. Volkswagen also recorded a dip in sales revenue in 2020, after it reported its highest sales turnover since 2006 in 2019. A bigger environmental focus by governments and vehicle users impacted the market at around the same time as the economic downturn caused by the pandemic. In the United States, one of the largest passenger vehicle markets, President Biden outlined a plan for around 50 percent of new vehicles to be electric by 2030. The Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Transport further planned for new fuel-efficiency standards to offset pollution. This shift is underway: SUVs have seen their carbon dioxide emission levels decrease to 293 grans per mile for 2020 models. Furthermore, Tesla’s Model Y was the market leader for plug-in electric crossover and SUVs worldwide in 2020.

Elevators are an essential component of modern life, enabling humans to build increasingly taller buildings that can be accessed by all. Until Otis Elevator Company introduced the first passenger safety elevator in 1852, the height of buildings was constrained by how many stairs a human could climb, typically seven to eight floors. Elisha Otis' invention revolutionized the possibilities of urbanization across the globe, making Otis the largest company in the market for elevators as well as for other types of vertical or horizontal transportation mechanisms. In 1976, the company was acquired by United Technologies Corporation (UTC), strengthening its global leadership as an elevator manufacturer. After the UTC-Raytheon Technologies merger in 2020, Otis spun off as an independent company and took the name Otis Worldwide Corporation. With the arrival of new competitors, the global market for vertical transportation technologies is constantly expanding: over the last two decades, the number of new elevators and escalators installed worldwide has grown consistently year-over-year. The total number more than tripled between 2001 and 2023, reaching roughly one million installations by 2023. Business performance. From 2009 to 2023, net sales of Otis averaged around 12.7 billion U.S. dollars, with an upward trend toward 14.2 billion U.S. dollars in 2023. The net sales of Otis Worldwide Corporation divide into two main business segments: new equipment and equipment services. During the 2023 fiscal year, the company reported nearly 8.4 billion U.S. dollars in net sales from its service segment. Over the last decade, Otis has reported an initially fluctuating then downward-trending annual operating profit, which continued with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, during the 2023 fiscal year, the company reported an annual operating profit of over two billion U.S. dollars - a significant recovery from that reported in 2020. During the same fiscal year, Otis invested roughly 144 million U.S. dollars in research and development in order to remain competitive on a global level. Market competitors. The leading companies include Otis, Mitsubishi Electric, Schindler, and KONE. KONE’s revenue increased rapidly during the last two decades: between 2007 and 2022, the company more than doubled its revenue flows, reaching over 10.9 billion euros in 2023. Schindler experienced an increasing revenue flow until the global financial crisis (GFC) of 2008, reaching its apex of 14 billion Swiss francs in 2008. Yet, in the aftermath of GFC 2008, the company’s revenue plummeted, down by six billion Swiss francs. As of 2023, the company has not managed to fully recover its revenue flows. Outlook. In a world of increasing urbanization, elevators and other vertical or horizontal transportation systems and equipment are becoming more crucial. The growth trajectory of the elevator market is expected to follow a steady path: the global demand for elevators was projected at 85.2 billion U.S. dollars in 2023 and by 2028, the worldwide market for elevators is projected to reach over 110.5 billion U.S. dollars.

The electronics manufacturing industry is among the most significant contributors to the manufacturing output in the Philippines. With a focus on the sub-assembly of various electronic components, the sector accounts for the largest share of commodity exports from the Philippines, equivalent to about 60 percent. While it may not be the leading industry when it comes to GDP contribution, primarily due to production costs, electrical equipment manufacturing still generated over 50 billion Philippine pesos in gross value added in 2022. Electronics industry landscape. The electronics industry in the Philippines comprises semiconductor manufacturing services (SMS), 73 percent of the market, and electronics manufacturing services (EMS). The industry is focused primarily on the assembly, testing, packaging, and distribution of various electronic goods. In earlier years, it was dominated by international manufacturers that had moved their operations to the Philippines because of cheaper labor and lower production costs. Today, nearly 600 establishments in the sector are found within the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA) locations. The major products within the electronics manufacturing industry are semiconductors and electronic data processing products such as hard disk drives. In 2022, semiconductors accounted for the highest share of the total electronic products exported from the Philippines. They were primarily exported to China, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Also known as integrated circuits and microchips, semiconductors are used in many electrical appliances and consumer electronics such as smartphones and televisions. To produce semiconductors, the Philippines also imports electronic goods such as wafers from China, Korea, and Taiwan, among others. In addition, the sector also produces final products and product-specific parts in the consumer electronics, medical devices, office equipment, and automotive electronics sectors. Industry challenges and tax incentives for investors. Surging demand for electronic devices in recent years and growing interest in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence have contributed to the rapid growth of the electronics industry. However, the uncertainties caused by the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a slowdown in equipment production, translating to reduced output for semiconductors. To help the industry recover and attract more foreign investments, the government passed the Corporate Recovery and Tax Incentives for Enterprises Act (also known as CREATE Law) in March 2021, which provides better tax incentives to investors. In 2021, the Philippines received about 10.52 billion U.S. dollars of foreign direct investments. The value of approved investments in the manufacturing industry was twice as much as in the current year. The sector is looking to increase foreign investments further and is venturing into manufacturing medical devices and automotive electronics.

Brazil is the largest oil and gas producer in Latin America. The country holds significant reserves deep underground off the coast of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. In fact, Brazil was found to have the deepest oil reserves still deemed recoverable. Offshore exploration began in 2006 by the state-owned multinational company Petrobras and has become a boon for the country’s oil industry. Today, more than 90 percent of oil in Brazil is produced offshore. Production reaches new peak. Oil production in Brazil reached a new high of 1.2 billion barrels in 2023. This compared to a natural gas production of some 55 billion cubic meters, which also constituted a new peak in annual extraction volumes. Natural gas is often produced alongside crude oil. Brazil’s oil and gas reserves are primarily found in so-called pre- and post-salt layers. They are geological formations located around underground salt deposits. Petrobras is the largest company within Brazil’s oil and gas industry. The company’s hegemony is the result of more than four decades of exclusive rights to oil exploration in the country. Although legally the company has not held a monopoly since 1997, it remains largely unrivaled, accounting for more than 90 percent of the national crude oil production. Trade and prices. Disregarding domestic consumption, the majority of oil from Brazil is exported to China. Nearly every second barrel sold from Brazil ends up in Asia’s largest economy. The export price of Brazil’s oil usually fluctuates along developments in the wider global oil market, and as such recorded a decrease throughout the latter half of 2024.

India's coal mining industry has played a crucial role in propelling the country's economic development. The commercial energy requirements in India, the world’s most populous nation, are fulfilled by coal, which serves as the primary source for power generation as well as the production of steel and cement. Having one of the world's largest coal sectors, India is the second largest producer and consumer of coal after China. Even as a leading coal producer, India continues to import coal to meet its high domestic demand. The main coal-producing state-owned enterprises in India include Coal India Limited and its subsidiaries, along with NLC India Limited, which also oversee the production of lignite in the country. India's coal reserves. In the fiscal year 2023, India's volume of proved coal reserves amounted to approximately 207.4 billion metric tons, with non-coking coal reserves exceeding those of coking coal and lignite. The location of India's coal reserves (including both coking and non-coking coal) is primarily in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. The south-central and eastern states together hold more than 90 percent of the nation's total coal reserves. Conversely, significant lignite deposits are situated in the southern and western parts of the country, chiefly in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Coal mining in India. Coal demand in India reached approximately 1.09 billion metric tons in the fiscal year 2023, while domestic coal production was about 893 million metric tons that year. India's importation of roughly 240 million metric tons of coal, primarily from Indonesia, Australia, South Africa, and Russia, highlights the necessity for increased domestic output. Coal India Limited, responsible for over 80 percent of the national coal output, plays a significant role in this development. In the fiscal year 2023, Coal India Limited's coal production contributed 703.2 million metric tons to the total domestic supply, employing close to 239,000 workers. India's need for coal. Over the past decade, coal consumption in India has almost doubled. Coal is the predominant source of energy in the country's overall power generation, accounting for approximately 74 percent of India's total electricity production as of 2022. In essence, coal consumption is expected to remain an important component of India's energy landscape in the foreseeable future. This is primarily because it is a readily accessible local resource that is significantly less expensive than imported fuels such as crude oil and natural gas.

In September 2024, the Netherlands Enterprise Agency announced a new subsidy scheme to help fund private charging infrastructure for commercial vehicles. The scheme is one of the latest in the Dutch government’s efforts to subsidize electric vehicles and boost their adoption by consumers. The Netherlands was the sixth-largest electric vehicle market in Europe in 2023, based on new registration volumes, with electric vehicles representing over 43 percent of the total car sales in the country that year. As the share of electric vehicles in the Dutch car fleet increases, the Netherlands also invested in the expansion of its charging network, which increases confidence among drivers that electric vehicles are reliable transport. Commercial vehicles are increasingly electric. Alongside electric passenger cars, the number of commercial electric vehicles on Dutch roads has also been increasing. Yet, electric vehicles currently only make up a small fraction of the Dutch commercial vehicle fleet. The Dutch government is trying to encourage the uptake of electric and hydrogen trucks for commercial use by offering a subsidy that targets the current price difference between diesel and alternative fuel trucks. Since 2022, companies have been able to claim back between 40 and 60 percent of the price difference between a diesel and an electric or hydrogen truck. Meanwhile, the market for light commercial vehicles is much more developed. While manufacturers have struggled to find solutions for powering heavy goods vehicles with electricity, the lower weight of commercial vans has meant that electric models have been available for longer, and a wider range of models are available. The most popular options for fully electric vans are the Volkswagen ID.Buzz and the Toyota Proace City Verso. Zero emission mobility in Amsterdam. While the Netherlands, in line with other EU member states, aims to decarbonize its transport sector, the city of Amsterdam plans to go a step further: As part of its clean air strategy, it plans to only allow zero-emission transport into the city center as of 2030. The ban will include any vehicle operating on Amsterdam's roads and waterways, including cars, commercial vehicles, buses, ferries, and other boats. The intended timescale for a shift to zero-emission vehicles is even shorter for many of these vehicles. Buses, taxis, commercial vehicles, scooters, mopeds, and ferries with combustion engines are to be banned starting in 2025. Amsterdam, the Netherlands’ capital city, was among the five largest cities in Europe with the best public charging infrastructure availability. The region around Amsterdam has one of the densest charging infrastructure networks in the country, and the province of North Holland, of which Amsterdam is a part, had the second-highest number of fully electric passenger cars among all provinces in 2023. However, a fleet of around 51,200 battery-electric passenger cars in a population of nearly three million people in North Holland indicates that a substantial shift towards electric mobility will be necessary in the coming years if the targets are to be met. Forecasts are showing that this shift is already underway. Battery-electric vehicle sales in the Netherlands are predicted to grow significantly in the coming years, reaching a sales volume of over 216,200 in 2024. The Netherlands’ commitment to electrifying its transport sector already records promising results across vehicle type, due in part to government intervention through the provision of various subsidies. While efforts are still needed to overcome the challenges brought on by fleet decarbonization, the Dutch electric vehicle market stands out as one with the highest consumer adoption rates in Europe.

Japan's market size for biofuels is forecast to increase significantly in the next decades, as hydrogen and biofuels are expected to make up the highest volume of carbon-neutral fuels by 2030. By increasing its use of biofuels, Japan aims to increase energy security while improving air quality and protecting the environment. Biofuels are mainly used for transportation as well as heat and electricity production. The most common liquid biofuels include biodiesel and bioethanol, while solid biofuels are produced from biomass and include wood pellets. The emission of greenhouse gases varies considerably depending on the biofuel. Some have little to negative emissions, while others emit almost as much as burning fossil fuels. What fuels does Japan use for transportation? Regarding automobiles in Japan, the main fuel used by over 99 percent of light motor vehicles was gasoline. The government recently announced that all new passenger cars sold domestically should be electrified by 2035, expecting growth in the  electric vehicle industry. Next to carbon-neutral hydrogen fuel and electricity, Japan is counting on biodiesel and bioethanol to decarbonize its transportation sector. Japan Railway, for example, plans to introduce biofuels such as biodiesel in all its diesel trains by 2030 to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The  production volume of biodiesel  stagnated in recent years but Japan's new biofuels policy allows for increased imports. What fuels does Japan use for energy generation? The majority of Japan's primary energy consumption  continues to be covered by fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Since Japan lacks domestic reserves of fossil fuels, it is highly dependent on imports. To become more independent of energy imports and to reach its goal of carbon neutrality by 2050, the Japanese government plans to increase the use of  renewable energy, nuclear energy, and introduce green hydrogen and ammonia which should be produced with renewable energy. Currently, solar power and hydropower make up the largest renewable energy sources in Japan, while the  share of biomass in energy production  remains below six percent. However, the  electricity generation from solid biofuels  increased continuously throughout the past decade and is forecast to grow further. Overall, the use of biofuels in Japan is forecast to increase, but the country is still mostly using fossil fuels for transportation and energy generation. The domestic production of both biodiesel and bioethanol ceased in recent years, making Japan once again rely on imports. To become more independent of imports and reduce greenhouse gas emissions further, Japan must focus on increasing its own production of biofuels.

The automotive manufacturing industry in Colombia was deeply impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, seeing its gross domestic product fall from 554 to 240 billion Colombian pesos (just under 62 million U.S. dollars, at an exchange rate of 1,000 Colombian pesos equal to 0,26 U.S. dollars as of August 27th, 2021) in the second quarter of 2020. Motorbikes were the main segment in that industry. The motorcycle fleet in Colombia in 2020 was comprised of over 9.4 million units. Representing some 59 percent of the motor vehicle fleet, motorcycles were the leading vehicle type in the country as of December of that same year. By contrast, there were around 6.4 million vehicles on Columbian roads, accounting for around 40 percent of the motor vehicle fleet. Production and sales market changes. In 2018, the gross production value of the motorcycle industry in Colombia represented over 482 billion Colombian pesos (under 124.6 million U.S. dollars). This tied in with a motorcycle production of just under 528,000 units. Most of this production was intended for national sale, as Colombian motorcycle exports that year amounted to a volume of some 1,560 vehicles. Apparent consumption of motorcycles reached 574,800 units in 2018. By 2020, new motorcycle registrations in Colombia had dipped to just over 518,500 vehicles, a year-on-year drop of 14.3 percent compared to the country’s 2019 sales volume. Electric motorbikes, which remain a small market in Colombia, recorded a slight slump in sales in 2020. Around 2,163 new electric motorcycles were registered in the country, a drop of 149 vehicles sold compared to 2019. The inclusion of national and international brands in the market. Starker, owned by the Colombian motorcycle manufacturer Autoeco, was the leading electric motorcycle brand in the country in 2020. It dwarfed all other e-motorbikes brands with over 1,700 units sold. Out of the 518,500 new motorcycles registered in Colombia, the majority were from international brands. Japan-based Yamaha was the best-selling motorcycle brand, with over 105,400 vehicles, followed closely by Bajaj. Colombian brand AKT ranked fourth in the leading brands of the country. A year earlier, in 2019, Autoeco S.A. was the leading motorcycle retailer in the country, holding almost a third of the market. It was followed by Yamaha Incolmotos and Corbeta, at around 19 and 18 percent of the market respectively.

The sharing services market in the United States consists of companies which provide services to connect owners of an item with people who wish to use that item. Through the service, the owner provides access to the item for a limited period, for which they directly receive a fee. Often sharing services are provided using an online platform, although this is not always the case. The three most prominent categories of sharing services are home sharing, ride sharing and office sharing (also referred to as coworking). Taken as a whole, the sharing services market has become increasingly well known in the United States over the last four years, with 83 percent of people in the U.S. as of May 2018 being familiar with at least one sharing services company, compared to only 47 percent in 2015. Of the home sharing companies, the most well-known is Airbnb, who provides an online platform allowing people to offer free space in their home to people seeking accommodation. The accommodation is only offered for a limited duration, making the service similar to a hotel except provided in a private residence. Over the last three years, the service has seen a noticeable increase in users in the United States, from 30.4 million in 2016 to a projected 43.2 million in 2018. As of September 2017 there were 38,745 properties available through Airbnb in New York and 17,358 in Los Angeles. The largest two companies in the U.S. ridesharing market are Uber and Lyft. Both these companies use a smartphone app to match drivers with passengers at short notice for one-off shared rides to an agreed location. In this they operates similar to a taxi service, except that the ride is offered in a private vehicle. Both Uber and Lyft are highly recognized brands within the United States - as of May 2018, 76 percent of people claimed to be familiar with Uber and 66 percent with Lyft. The office sharing category is slightly different, in that shared office space is generally rented directly from a company which owns the space, rather through a service connecting private individuals. However, the category is still included in the sharing services market as the office space is broadly furnished by the provider, rented for a limited period and shared with other users. This allows workers to obtain space in a variety of geographic locations as needed. The two largest coworking office providers in the U.S. as of February 2018 are Regus, who leased over 9.4 million square feet of shared office space, and WeWork, who leased around 6.5 million square feet. Coworking is less well known than other sharing services, with only 17 percent of people in the U.S. being familiar with the service as of May 2018.

Thanks to household names like Peugeot, Renault or Citroën, the automotive industry is an important factor in the French economy. As one of the biggest consumer markets in Europe, France’s wholesale and retail industry generated 1.32 trillion euros in turnover in 2017 and a production value of 387 billion euros. All in all, the country counts more than 600,000 enterprises operating in the trade and repair of vehicles and motorcycles. In 2017, more than 1.4 million passenger cars were produced in France by French manufacturers. This makes France one of the most important motor vehicle manufacturing countries in Europe. Out of the 2.1 million cars sold in 2018, 1.12 million were petrol cars and the number of newly registered cars operated with diesel engines has been decreasing in recent years. That same year 183.7 million new motorcycles and 6,228 new buses and coaches were registered. The number of households owning no cars has been increasing over the last years. In 2018, more than 7,000 French households were without a car and 4,000 households owned at least three cars. Most French households owned only one car, though. The three homegrown big players Renault, Peugeot, and Citroën rank supreme in terms of car ownership, leaving the runners-up Volkswagen and Ford far behind. 13.5 million French people are driving a Renault as of 2018, making it the most beloved car brand in France. With 2,2 million passenger cars produced, the company, steeped in tradition and established as early as 1899, is also France’s biggest car manufacturer. Still, sales of Clios, Méganes and Twingos fluctuated over the last decade. Selling over half a million cars in 2009, this number dropped to 337,600 in 2013. For the last years, sales have been stalling at just above 400,000.

Although not as well-known as Nokia, KONE is a company familiar to anyone who does not like to take the stairs. Originally founded in 1910 in Finland, KONE has been manufacturing and installing its own elevators since 1918. Kone, which means "machine" or "industrial device" in Finnish, has been maintained as the company's name even after its acquisition by the Herlin family, one of Finland's wealthiest families, in 1924. The Herlin family has been owning and controlling the company ever since; KONE's present-day chairman is Antti Herlin, the richest person in Finland. Over the decades, the company has expanded its activities beyond Finland, and is currently selling elevators to all major markets. In 2023, China held 62 percent of the elevator and escalator market, followed by the EMEA region with 17 percent. Business performance and development of KONE. Between 2007 and 2023, KONE's annual revenue more than doubled. Similarly, the annual order backlog of KONE increased by 26 percent in the last decade, reaching over 8.6 billion euros in 2023. In order to remain competitive and improve the product line of the company, KONE has been investing in research and development (R&D). In 2023, KONE's R&D expenditure amounted to 185 million euros. KONE in the global market. Between 2023 and 2028, the global elevator market is expected to increase, attracting more companies into the industry. The main competitors of KONE include Otis Worldwide, Schindler, and Mitsubishi Electric. KONE ranked third in terms of revenue in 2023, generating some 12.1 billion U.S. dollars. It was preceded by Otis with over 14.2 billion U.S. dollars and Schindler with almost 13.7 billion U.S. dollars in revenue. It can be expected that elevator manufacturers will maintain their strong performance. The number of new elevator and escalator installations worldwide has almost quadrupled over the last two decades, up from 260,000 installations per year in 2002 to roughly one million installations per year in 2023. Moreover, the global elevator and escalator market is poised to grow from 85 billion U.S. dollars in 2023 to almost 111 billion U.S. dollars in 2028.

Toyota and Lexus drivers in the United States were among the most satisfied consumers with their car brand, based on a 2023 index score. What are the factors behind this success? Toyota, a subsidiary of the Toyota Motor Corporation, was the second most valuable automotive brand worldwide as of June 2024, with around 30.2 billion U.S. dollars in market value. Out of the Toyota Motor Corp’s 11.2 million retail vehicle sales in 2023, around 1.89 million were Toyota-branded vehicles sold in the United States. This sales volume made Toyota the second best-selling passenger car brand in the U.S. that year, which led to the Toyota Motor Corporation remaining the manufacturer with the second largest market share in the U.S., behind General Motors. The U.S. motor vehicle and parts retail trade reported revenue of nearly 1.59 trillion U.S. dollars in 2023, an increase compared to 2022. As the U.S. slowly recovers from a depleted vehicle supply as the result of the global semiconductor shortage, the Toyota Motor Corporation brands remain among those with the lowest inventory. In November 2023, both Toyota and Lexus—Toyota Motor Corp’s luxury brand—were among the five brands with the lowest days of vehicle supply in the U.S., while General Motors‘ brands faired better. Toyota Motor Corp brands are among the U.S. market leaders. Toyota is one of the market leaders in North America. Its RAV4 model was the best-selling sport utility vehicle in the United States in 2023. Furthermore, the most popular passenger car in the U.S. that year was the Toyota Camry, with its sales adding up to close to 290,700 units. The Toyota Motor Corp not only competes within the traditional internal combustion engine car market but also reports a strong presence in the electric vehicle market, particularly through its hybrid and plug-in hybrid models. Between the first quarter of 2020 and the second quarter of 2022, Toyota consistently ranked as the best-selling hybrid and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle brand in the U.S.. Its Lexus brand, which recorded good levels of consumer satisfaction, also climbed back into the top three luxury car brands in the U.S. in 2023, edging out Mercedes-Benz. The manufacturer had also been increasing its research and development expenses between its 2023 and 2024 fiscal years, investing in new technologies such as powertrains and advanced mobility solutions, including integrated vehicle systems. A strong consumer satisfaction across brands. Toyota’s eponymous brand and its luxury marque Lexus recorded a year-over-year growth in U.S. sales in 2023. This increase in cars sold is linke with the brands' consistent high scores in many consumer perception rankings. Toyota and Lexus came in second and first as the most reliable car brands in the U.S. as of December 2023, awarded scores of 76 and 79 percent reliability. Consumer satisfaction with the brands was also one of the highest in the country. In 2024, Toyota was one of the four brands with the highest satisfaction index score, at 83, while Lexus ranked as the close second, sharing the spot with Honda and Cadillac. Both Japanese brands have improved consumer satisfaction since 2021. Despite the slight decline recorded in 2024, this still suggests that Toyota Motor Corp remains a safe bet for U.S. drivers. This popularity is reflected in Toyota Motor Corp’s regional revenue distribution, with North America representing around 31.1 percent of the company’s total revenue. However, this previous success is mitigated by a global output in freefall since 2024. Following an investigation into Toyota Motor Corporation's subsidiary Daihatsu by the Japanese transport ministry due to safety test irregularities in December 2023, the group had to halt the shipment of some of its key models, including from its eponymous Toyota brand. This scandal is set to impact the company's 2025 fiscal year and its 2024 performance in many markets.

Toyota was the best-selling car manufacturer in the world in 2023. The company was on track to repeat this result in 2024 by selling more than 10 million vehicles globally, many of which were produced domestically. Japan's automobile industry boasts numerous world-renowned vehicle manufacturers, which have found domestic and international success, such as Honda or Nissan, making the automobile sector crucial to Japan's economy. While automobile manufacturers, such as the above-mentioned companies, are representative of the automobile sector in Japan, they do not comprise the largest segment of the industry. In fact, the biggest segment of Japan’s automobile sector  is the automotive parts and accessories industry. Unlike the vehicle manufacturing industry, dominated by a few large players, the auto parts industry is relatively fragmented, with thousands of companies working closely with Japan's automobile manufacturing giants to cover their demand. Leading auto supplying players   include Hitachi, Denso, Aisin, and the automobile-related segments of conglomerates, such as Panasonic and Mitsubishi Electric. However, the industry also relies heavily on the contribution of numerous small and middle-sized companies. Servicing Japan's automobile manufacturing industry. Japan's auto part industry is inherently intertwined with the automobile manufacturing industry. Automobile assembly companies rely to a large extent on the supply of auto parts crafted by domestic businesses. Hence, vehicle production factories constitute the largest client for Japan's auto part industry, followed by other domestic car parts makers. The two industries’ interconnectedness led to the expansion of the domestic auto parts industry to a remarkable market size, as the growth and international recognition of Japanese carmakers resulted in a rise in demand for cars, and consequently, automobile parts. Auto parts produced in Japan are also widely exported and used in various segments of the automobile manufacturing industry in countries outside of Japan. On the other hand, the import of auto parts  is relatively small in comparison, as Japan's large domestic auto part industry mostly satisfies domestic demand. Auto parts production offshoring. Mirroring the offshoring of Japanese automobile carmakers, Japan's auto parts industry also expanded globally. Roughly 2,000 Japanese auto parts manufacturers have established subsidiaries abroad, producing goods worth trillions of Japanese yen annually. Furthermore, the auto parts manufacturing industry is an important workplace provider. Combined, more than one million people were employed by Japanese auto parts manufacturers, most of which were located in ASEAN countries, China, and North America. North American subsidiaries generated the highest revenue. The close connection of Japan's automotive manufacturing companies with their automobile part suppliers is underscored in the latter's offshoring ventures, as most auto parts produced abroad are destined for domestic vehicle assembly lines. The interconnectivity and mutual interdependence of the auto parts industry with the vehicle manufacturing industry have hitherto been, and will most likely continue to be, one of the defining characteristics of Japan's automobile sector.

South Korea has strived to become a global leader in the robotics industry by leveraging its well-established industrial robot market and future-oriented investments in service robots. In 2024, the South Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy outlined its “4th Intelligent Robot Basic Plan,” which aimed to promote the competitiveness of the domestic industry in several ways. The country’s impressive manufacturing sector boasts the highest density of industrial robots worldwide. On the other hand, developing various service robots can be an opportunity to equip the domestic economy with the tools to react to any changes in the active labor force in the future, especially when considering the nation’s demographic circumstances. How is the South Korean robotics industry classified? The industry comprises seven distinct categories: manufacturing robots, robot services, robot parts and software, robot systems, specialized service robots, personal service robots, and embedded robotics. The manufacturing robots sector is considered the most prominent subset of the wider robotics business, with many companies on both the supply and demand side of the market. In particular, the emergence of collaborative robots, or “cobots”, has proven to be an attractive solution for use cases on a smaller, more detailed scale. Other significant sources of revenue include robot services, parts and software, and robot systems. Companies in the services sector have engaged in the distribution of robots to great effect, with the majority of the sector’s sales deriving from wholesale or retail activities. The hardware and software going into the final product have been another strength of domestic producers, with the advent of artificial intelligence (AI) acting as a catalyst for further innovation. As for the robot systems sector, it has made close ties to the bustling industrial robot market in the country. However, this could possibly be a reflection of the industry status quo. The potential of service robots. As robotics-related technology has developed, heightened interest in service robots has come to the fore. Personal service robots are familiar to most consumers, with robot vacuum cleaners being a prime example. However, most of the excitement has stemmed from the potential of service robots in specific roles, as they provide support to or even replace human labor in certain environments. From bolstering healthcare to minimizing human risk via Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), the advantages of utilizing specialized service robots are an attractive prospect for stakeholders moving forward. On the back of ambitious government plans, the robotics industry in South Korea has geared up for expansion.

During India’s colonial era, ordnance factories were created in the subcontinent to manufacture guns and ammunition. Other than that, there was hardly any development of the defense sector in India. After independence, the defense manufacturing sector started to grow. In 1947, several technical research institutions were established which later became parts of India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). In the second half of the 20th century, more ordnance factories and public-owned defense companies were established to supply the Indian military. Further progress can be seen in the last three decades. Indigenous defense industry. India had the world's second largest army. Its military budget ranked fourth in the world, higher than both United Kingdom and Germany. However, India was highly dependent on imported military equipment, especially from Soviet Union and later Russia. To reduce dependence on foreign arms, the Indian government has been pushing for indigenous development in the defense manufacturing sector. Over the years, the capital budget for defense has increased to support domestic manufacturing industries. Since 1990s, as the Soviet Union collapsed, more efforts were made to indigenize not only the production, but also the research and development (R&D) of military equipment. On one hand, there is lack of technology transfer with India’s defense imports, impeding India’s ability to develop and manufacture technically advanced equipment. On the other hand, growth in domestic demand is expected to be robust, providing incentives and opportunities to the industry. Moreover, the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) for this sector has been increased to 74 percent, and it was opened up to 100 percent for Indian private sector. Important defense manufacturers in India. Some of the most important Indian defense manufactures were Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and Ordnance Factory Board (OFB). HAL is one of the oldest defense manufacturers in the country. It is a state-owned company, manufacturing fighter jets, helicopters, and related parts and equipment, headquartered in Bengaluru, with R&D and production facilities spread across the country. BEL is also a state-owned company, manufacturing advanced electronics for ground and aerospace applications. It is located in Bengaluru as well, with facilities across India. However, when it comes to size, OFB was by far the largest, later corporatized into seven companies, consisting of 41 production ordnance factories, supplying Indian military from small arms to missiles and tanks.

The equipment rental market has experienced consistent growth globally over the last ten years. Between 2010 and 2019, the market increased by almost 60 percent. In 2019, the global equipment rental market generated 87.5 billion U.S. dollars in revenue. After dropping to 53.2 billion U.S. dollars in 2020, the North American equipment rental market is projected to reach the 2019 level by 2023. Declining sharply by 9.1 percent in 2020, the North American market grew by four percent in 2021 and should grow by 10 percent in 2022. The United States dominated the North American market with market size of 47.8 billion U.S. dollars in 2021, representing a market share of over 89 percent. The U.S. equipment rental market is projected to grow to an estimated 59.5 billion U.S. dollars by 2024. What types of equipment are rented in the U.S.? The rental of construction and industrial equipment was the largest segment of the U.S. equipment rental market in 2021, with a market size amounting to 32.5 billion U.S. dollars. In 2022, 62 percent of respondents said their main reason for renting equipment is the flexibility in returning it. Thirty percent of respondents also declared they rented out more construction equipment to contractors compared to 2021. Largest equipment rental companies in the U.S. Connecticut-based United Rentals ranked as the largest equipment rental company in the United States, with a market share of 16 percent. In 2021, United Rental generated over 9.7 billion U.S. dollars in revenue. United Rentals was also the leading tractor rental carrier in this period, with a fleet size of over 2,000. Coming second after United Rentals, the U.K.-based Sunbelt recorded total rental revenue of nearly eight billion euros through Sunbelt Rentals.

The Indian economy has benefitted considerably from the infrastructure sector. It is a diverse field that passes through many industries including construction, urban and rural development, real estate, telecommunication, and transport. It contributed a share of about nine percent to India’s GDP. In the country’s organized market, popularly referred to as India Inc., the construction sector was valued at nearly nine trillion rupees in financial year 2019. Furthermore, the construction industry was attractive for foreign direct investments (FDI). After a decline in FDIs during 2019, however, inflow recovered the following year, reaching over 600 million U.S. dollars. An important component in the infrastructure sector across India is road and rail transport. Since its expansion after the country’s independence, the network is composed of rural and district roads as well as national and state highways. The road network in the subcontinent was the second largest in the world. In 2019, the total length of roads across the country stood at over six million kilometers. Among the metropolitan cities, the capital region of Delhi had the longest road network spanning over 33 thousand kilometers as of 2019. Though the road density and length in the country was quite high, the nation continued to suffer from poor quality of roads as compared to other developing countries. The conditions of the road network combined with the high passenger and freight traffic created a demand for further planning and investment into the road transportation sector. Infrastructure development and investments in the railway sector in India had also been significant. The industry was the backbone of long-distance domestic transport, making the rail network third largest across the globe. There were over 22 thousand trains that connected around eight thousand stations. In 2020, over one billion metric tons of freight was carried via Indian railways. That year, the passenger traffic stood at over eight billion. On average, the railway network carried around 23 million passengers every day. The government continued investing in the industry to cater to the increasing demand of daily commutes created by a better connectivity between rural and urban areas, predominantly for employment purposes. Given the importance of the infrastructure sector for the economic development of a country, reports on cost overruns and delays resulted in disputes in recent years. Nevertheless, the construction industry and infrastructure projects looked towards an economic revival after the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. These expectations were canalized through the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP), one of the biggest governmental initiatives in recent years. The NIP was launched in August 2020 and spanned the period from 2020 to 2025, aiming to improve quality of life for Indian citizens. Over seven thousand projects worth around 1.5 trillion U.S. dollars were scheduled. Although most projects were planned for the power sector, roads and railways made up a collective 32 percent. Besides massive governmental funding, one aim of the NIP was to attract major private funding for these projects.

The electric vehicle market has rapidly increased since the beginning of the pandemic, spurred by an increased environmental consciousness from consumers and by government targets for the decarbonization of their domestic transport sector. This rising interest in EVs is incentivizing traditional automakers to electrify their vehicle models on offer and motivates new players to enter the market. The market is expected to keep growing, reaching 906.7 billion U.S. dollars in projected revenue for 2028 per a September 2023 forecast. This growing sector attracts consumers and investors alike, as the new car sales profit pool is estimated to be 44 times greater in 2035 than in 2021, including battery-electric and autonomous vehicles. By 2022, investments in mobility-based climate tech startups had reached an all-time high. Green vehicle startup funding was the steepest in the Americas, partly spurred by Tesla’s success in the United States. However, while this region recorded the largest funding for green vehicles, Chinese electric vehicle startups were consistently among the startups receiving the most investments, as well as part of the climate tech unicorns with the highest valuation. National and international challenges to profitability. As the world’s biggest electric vehicle market, China also provided domestic startups with favorable economic conditions for their expansion through policies and projects such as government investment funds and below-market credits. As of 2023, Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer WM Motor was the climate tech startup with the second-highest valuation, tied with fellow Chinese startup Meicai at a valuation of seven billion U.S. dollars. Hozon, which tied for fourth in the list of highest-valued climate tech unicorns, was also the eighth best-selling electric vehicle manufacturer on the Chinese market in 2022. However, despite advantageous measures set in place to help Chinese electric vehicle startups, the national market is slowly becoming more concentrated. The price volatility of raw materials, impacted by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and EV market pricing, becoming more competitive as Tesla lowered prices for some of its models in 2023, are symptoms of a more challenging post-pandemic operational reality for Chinese electric vehicle startups. In 2021, WM Motor reported nearly 44,200 electric vehicle deliveries, a volume which dropped by a third in 2022. In October 2023, the startup filed for a pre-restructuring process after struggling with its financial performance. China is, however, not the only country where electric vehicle startups face various economic hurdles. Faraday Future and Lucid Motors were the U.S. companies that had received the largest funding as of August 2023. Lucid Motors also manufactured the electric vehicle model with the longest driving range as of 2022. However, both startups reported net losses for their 2022 fiscal year, amounting to 1.3 billion U.S. dollars for Lucid Motors and 552.07 million U.S. dollars for Faraday Future. Investors prefer investing in batteries and electric vehicle infrastructure. Electric vehicle startups faced various challenges to reach profitability. Due to the dynamism of the market, automakers are focusing on their research and development, leading to innovations and the filing of new patent applications. Between 2011 and 2022, WM Motor filed some 548 patent applications, most of them filed between 2016 and 2018. Investments play an important part in this innovation. In 2021, there were 100 mega-rounds of funding for global mobility startups, which involved investments of over 100 million U.S. dollars. Global green vehicle startups received around 65.5 billion U.S. dollars in funding between 2009 and 2021, making it the third most popular mobility startup category, behind mobility services and connected and self-driving vehicles. However, while electric cars were a popular sector for growth-stage venture capital investments, they were not as popular for early-stage venture capital investments, partly due to the growth necessary for electric vehicle manufacturers to reach profitability. Electric vehicle charging startups, in contrast, reported the highest early-stage and growth-stage venture capital investments in 2022. Battery makers were another popular company type for venture capital investors. Northvolt, the climate tech startup with the highest valuation in 2023, is a Swedish battery developer and manufacturer.

The 19th Century brought about unrivaled advances in industrial technology and manufacturing processes that resulted in the creation of many of our most important technologies in use today, such as the automobile, steam-powered transport and generators, the airplane, etc. The automobile, in particular, allowed for immense changes and advances in employment patterns, social interactions, infrastructure, and commerce. Although the core concept remains, the ways in which cars are powered, designed, styled, and provided with utilities has changed and evolved dramatically throughout its history. One of the primary concerns with automobiles is ensuring a safe experience for drivers, passengers, and especially pedestrians who account for nearly 16 percent of traffic-related fatalities. Part of minimizing traffic-related deaths is designing vehicles to be durable as to not endanger those inside. In the early 20th century, steel was the primary and most important material in manufacturing as it was less expensive and required less production time while being stronger than alternatives. However, these automobiles were quite heavy and decreased travel speeds. During and after the First World War, companies began to experiment with aluminum in automobile design, which is significantly lighter than conventional steel, more malleable for aerodynamic design, and has minimal losses in durability. Production materials remained rather constant until the 1950s when fiberglass composites were beginning to be used in full production cars. Further fueled by the oil crisis in the 1970s, manufacturers then felt the pressure to design vehicles that were even more lightweight leading to improved fuel-efficiency. Original equipment manufacturers (OEM) understood that certain parts, such as bumpers, could be substituted with plastic alternatives to decrease weight and price. Consequently, many of the heavier parts were swapped with plastic alternatives. Today, OEMs juggle the increasing demand for more utilities (and heavier designs) while continuing to improve fuel-efficiency. Several companies are experimenting with plastic carbon composites, but widespread production lags due to notably higher costs. For now, high strength steel and certain aluminum alloys prevail as the primary materials used in automobiles, especially in light vehicle production.

In the United Kingdom, annual revenue made from national rail ticket sales before 2020 kept a steady upward trend, peaking at 10.2 billion British pounds in 2019, of which the majority was generated through ordinary fares – that is, fares excluding season tickets. By contrast, the length of rail routes open to passengers has declined over the past six decades: While 1955 recorded a peak rail network length of almost 24,000 kilometers, by 2020 this figure had decreased to just over 14,700 kilometers. Traffic on the rail network. As the United Kingdom’s capital city, London remains the nation’s busiest region in terms of rail passenger traffic in the UK, thanks to its multiple railway terminals and numerous rail operators offering services into and out of London. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the city handled more than 2,000 train services (arrivals and departures) to and from the city in one day only during peak hours, with connections further afield to France and Belgium. It remains to be seen how far the controversial planned HS2 high-speed rail line connecting London with other significant UK cities such as Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester will foster further growth in inbound and outbound traffic. UK railroads moved 15.2 billion tonne-kilometers of freight in the most recent financial year, with figures decreasing following the 2014/15 financial year, when more than 22.4 billion tonne-kilometers were hauled. By comparison, over the last four financial years, the volume of domestic intermodal freight has remained flat at around 6.5 billion tonne-kilometers. By 2025, industry is expected to generate revenue of roughly 1.3 billion U.S. dollars annually. Controversy, conflict, and coronavirus. In the past years, customer satisfaction with the UK’s rail services has hovered around 80 percent, as inadequate infrastructure improvements have led to regular delays and cancelations, increasing rail fares, and overcrowded trains. Conflict over whether the rail industry should once more be nationalized is growing – especially as a result of the ongoing increase in rail fare prices. The UK’s rail network was officially privatized back in the 1990s to boost competition on the rail network. The COVID-19 outbreak in early 2020, however, resulted in the UK government’s temporary and unofficial “reassumption” of the national rail industry’s financial risks, timetabling, and staff as it enforced strict regulations during the lockdown beginning in late March 2020. This shift in regulatory power over railway services meant that private rail franchises were able to somewhat compensate their subsequent dramatic loss in ridership and revenue with public funds issued by the government.

According to a recent survey, 57 percent of Italian car drivers think that economic relevance is the main reason for choosing an electric car. The market of electric cars in Italy is growing, showing that electric mobility is becoming more than a trending topic. Based on the number of electric cars registered in Italy, a strong growth rate can be seen in the last two years, increasing from 1,452 units in 2015 to 2,220 units sold in 2017. This trend is also confirmed within segments, in particular for cars belonging to segment B (small cars with a length of approximately 4 metres), from 229 units sold in 2016 to 374 units in 2017, and vehicles in segment C (medium cars having a length of approximately 4.5 metres), increasing from 681 units as of 2016 to 706 units sold in 2017. In spite of their positive contribution to the environment, electric cars do not offer the same distribution network as traditional vehicles. In fact, car drivers do seem concerned when it comes to the disadvantages of electric cars. 55 percent of respondents to a survey reported that fear of running out of charge was greatest, while 11 percent stated that electric cars do not have disadvantages. Regarding charging points, 36 percent of male car drivers would find it useful to be able to recharge electric vehicles at supermarkets, while 56 percent of Italians living in the northwest of Italy would prefer gas stations. As of 2018, 50 percent of charging points were located in urban areas, and 5 percent in extra-urban areas. Despite the disadvantages listed by car drivers, they are still interested in electric cars. According to a recent survey, 56 percent of car drivers stated that car incentives should be one of the measures adopted for electric cars promotion, such as favorable taxes on energy. Based on forecasts, the number of battery electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles is expected to grow by 2030, reaching 1 million and 707,000 cars respectively.

As the deadline for the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR) targets inches closer, Spain faces various challenges on the path to growing its electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Spain would need over 183,900 electric vehicle chargers to meet the European Union’s AFIR objectives by 2030. While its 30,345 public charging points available at the end of the fourth quarter of 2023 would already meet the 2024 target, Spain faces various challenges to expanding its charging infrastructure. The country must contend with specific strategic and demographic hurdles on top of the obstacles typically associated with public charging build-up, which creates a complex ecosystem for market expansion. Charging infrastructure challenges akin to those in other European countries. Similarly to its European neighbors, most of Spain’s public charging infrastructure consisted of alternating current (AC) chargers, which tend to provide slower recharging options than direct current (DC) charging as electric vehicle batteries store power as direct current. In fact, most of Spain’s public AC charging points were medium-speed chargers, with power between 7.4 and 22 kilowatts. Given the growing Spanish electric vehicle fleet, the country’s need for fast-charging solutions could also increase, particularly in areas with a low ratio of charging stations to inhabitants. Furthermore, nearly 8,900 charging points were inactive at the end of the third quarter of 2023, representing over a quarter of the public charging infrastructure in the country. A third of Spanish consumers reported interest in installing an electric vehicle charging station at home in 2023. However, a lack of garage space or single-family homes could be one of the largest hurdles to EV home charging, which might increase pressure on an already challenged Spanish charging infrastructure. Demographic hurdles specific to Spain impact EV charging network deployment. Aside from challenges that other countries face, Spain also grapples with demographic obstacles when expanding its charging network. Spain boasts a few large cities, though these tend to record a charging infrastructure score lower than some of their European counterparts, including Lisbon, Portugal’s capital city. The high population density in Spanish cities is partly responsible for this lower score. However, the country’s urban areas had the highest concentration of charging stations per 100 square kilometers, at over 25 stations more than touristic areas, second in the ranking. Due to Spain’s high population density in cities, the charging infrastructure outside urban areas is sparser, including along major road corridors linking main cities in the country. Disparities are also observable between autonomous communities, with Catalonia and Madrid recording the largest charging networks. These two autonomous communities were also the biggest markets for electric vehicles in Spain, and the autonomous communities with the most inactive charging points. These differences between autonomous communities are even starker when considering the ratio of square kilometers per charger, as communities with lower population density tended to have larger distances between chargers. The challenges mentioned above and specific to Spain add a level of complexity to the development of its charging infrastructure in order to meet the AFIR objectives.

The automotive industry faced various setbacks in 2020 as more and more countries across the globe limited transportation as a result of the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. These included a prolonged truncation of demand due to national lockdowns and a slow-down of supplies as manufacturing plants temporarily closed. These effects began in China, where car sales plummeted in February 2020. By April of that same year, sales had plunged in the United States and Europe. Month-over-month passenger car sales in Europe dropped by over 65 percent between March and April 2020. While demand started to pick back up in 2021, the semiconductors sector had scaled back its production of microchips due to a lack of demand in 2020. Semiconductors are an essential part of car manufacturing, controlling air conditioning systems, monitoring tire pressure, or ensuring that the airbag is triggered in the event of an accident. The global chip shortage, therefore, impacted automotive supplies, making it harder for manufacturers to meet the new car demand. In June 2021, Toyota recorded the lowest vehicle inventory across automotive brands in the U.S. The global drop in supply and demand. Worldwide car sales dropped to 63.8 million in 2020, with a slow recovery projected in 2021 up to 66 million sales. Europe is forecast to record the quickest light vehicle sales growth between 2021 and 2022, followed by the United States and China, but this will not offset the region’s 21 percent dip between 2019 and 2020. Motor vehicle production had been slowing down in various European markets since around September and October 2020, after rebounding from the April 2020 slump. The United States faced a similar outlook, with its inventory-to-sales ratio rapidly declining since April 2020. Interest rates on 60 months new car loans were also the lowest they have been since September 2014. The impact of COVID-19 was also reflected in motor vehicle manufacturers’ worldwide sales. The Volkswagen Group and Toyota recorded drops of over a million units in their deliveries. Volkswagen temporarily closed its European manufacturing plants for a few months in March 2020 as a response to the pandemic. Along with Toyota, both manufacturers faced production cuts in August 2021 due to the global chip shortage. Both manufacturers also recorded significant drops in revenue, of just under 30 billion euros for Volkswagen AG and over 2 trillion Japanese yen for Toyota. A shift in consumers’ needs. The COVID-19 pandemic also influenced consumers’ perception of their vehicle needs. In a 2020 survey, 67 percent of Chinese respondents reported reconsidering the number of vehicles needed for their households because of the pandemic. This share of respondents dropped to 41 percent in the United States and 25 percent in Germany. Online vehicle sales were also popular for 49 percent of Chinese respondents to a May 2020 survey, denoting a certain hesitancy towards buying a car online, despite the boom of the e-commerce industry amidst the pandemic. By contrast, interest in electric vehicles increased by 56 percent in North America, 46 percent in Asia, and 29 percent in Europe. The U.S. records the highest total consumer spending on transportation worldwide, dwarfing all other countries. Between April 30 and May 1, 2021, some 19 percent of the U.S. consumers surveyed planned to delay vehicle purchase, a drop compared to August 2020. The hesitancy to purchase a vehicle online was also present in the U.S., consumers preferring to use online methods to find information on purchase incentives and to qualify for financing options. Reviewing and signing the final contract, acquiring the vehicle, and test-driving the car through home delivery options were by contrast less popular options. Consumers further reported the main hurdle to online car purchases to be having to see the vehicle before buying it.

ABB Group is a Swiss-Swedish multinational corporation based in Switzerland and is a key player in areas such as industrial automation, power technology, and robotics. In 2021, the company generated more than  28.9 billion U.S. dollars in revenue, recording an increase of almost 11 percent year-on-year.  Europe was the most profitable region  for the company that year, contributing some 36 percent to ABB Group’s total revenue. Electrification. The Electrification business segment of the company offers products and solutions such as power generation systems and transmission and distribution networks, which are used in a wide range of industries, including renewables and  electric mobility. In 2021, ABB Group generated around  13.2 billion U.S. dollars in revenue from its Electrification segment alone, representing over 44 percent of the total revenue that year. Furthermore, this segment had the highest number of employees —nearly 51,000—in 2021, comprising 49 percent of all employees working at ABB Group. ABB Group history and competitors. ABB Group was founded in 1988 through the merger of Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget of Sweden with Switzerland’s Brown, Boveri & Cie. Currently, with a  market value of around 67.8 billion U.S. dollars, the Zurich-headquartered ABB Group ranks among the world’s largest conglomerates. The company competes with heavyweights such as Raytheon Technologies,  General Electric, 3M, Danaher, Honeywell International of the United States, and Siemens in Germany. In the field of  robot manufacturing, ABB Group competes with Chinese-owned  KUKA Group  and Japan-based Mitsubishi Electric, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Fanuc, and Yaskawa.

The automobile manufacturing industry is a pivotal part of Japan's economy, and passenger cars are its most important segment. Most new vehicle registrations in Japan are passenger cars of domestic brands like Toyota, Suzuki, Daihatsu, or Nissan. While several million passenger car exports accounted for more than half of domestic production, imports stayed within hundreds of thousands in the last few years. Meanwhile, Japanese production overseas has surpassed domestic production. Despite the growing significance of the foreign market, the domestic market has always played an important role for Japanese carmakers, reacting to domestic demands with small, affordable models that have low fuel consumption. Core industry technologies are hybrid-electric engines, as well as safety and autonomous driving systems. Mini cars are a heavy-weight in Japan's car manufacturing industry. In 2024, Japan's best-selling passenger car was the Honda N-Box, a box-shaped mini vehicle that has also led the rankings in the past few years. More than one in three passenger cars used or sold domestically belongs to the Japanese vehicle class of light motor vehicles. The Road Transport Vehicle Law defines these mini vehicles, also known as kei cars, as vehicles with an engine displacement of 660cc or smaller and a measurement not exceeding 3.4m in length, 2m in height, and 1.48m in width. In Japan, private car owners use their vehicles primarily for short to medium trips, such as for nearby shopping, or commuting to work and school. For these purposes, many people appear to prefer smaller cars. Some of the advantages over regular passenger cars include lower prices and maintenance costs, easier parking, and facilitated driving on Japan’s numerous narrow roads. Automotive electrification in Japan. Reinforcing its commitment to making Japan carbon-neutral by 2050, the Japanese Government raised its reduction target for emissions to 46 percent by 2030 (compared to 2013). The electrification of motor vehicles is part of its so-called "Green Growth Strategy", as automobiles account for roughly 16 percent of Japan’s carbon emissions. Consequently, the Government announced that all new passenger cars shall be electrified by 2035, referring to battery electric vehicles (BEV), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), which already account for a large share of new sales today. HEVs are especially popular and are most often considered for the next car purchase. Fully electric vehicles (BEV), on the other hand, have struggled to show substantial growth in Japan, as consumers remain to be convinced of the upsides of owning such a car.  Japan's domestic car industry is dominated by Japanese manufacturing giants, such as Toyota, and passenger cars are the industry's central segment. Despite a growth in the importance of vehicle manufacturing abroad, the domestic market is going to continue to play a central role in the future development of major Japanese automakers.

Jaguar Land Rover Automotive is a British luxury automobile manufacturer, established as a subsidiary of Tata Motors in 2008. In their 2018 financial year, the company had made 1.5 billion British pounds in pre-tax profits. These had been declining since peaking at 2.6 billion British pounds in 2015. In the same time period, the company has ramped up their investments, including into their own products, spending 4.2 billion British pounds in the 2018 fiscal year. This was more than four times the amount spent in 2011/12. Globally, the luxury car market was worth 495 billion euros in 2018, the highest amount in the time period between 2010 and that year. Mercedes-Benz was the leading luxury car brand by sales volume, with Jaguar Land Rover coming in fifth place. The most cars had been sold in the UK, at nearly 116,000 units. This was unsurprising, given that it was the automobile manufacturer's home market, although figures from previous years show that China had seen even higher sales than the UK in the past. Regarding sales in different countries, approximately 18,000 Land Rover cars had been sold to Germany in 2018 for example, a decrease to the previous three years. By comparison, Jaguar sales in that country had been growing, amounting to 9,500 units that same year. In terms of licensed vehicle numbers in their home market, there were 344,299 Range Rover cars registered in Great Britain as of the third quarter of 2018, while the Jaguar XE series had seen registrations rise to 35,845 units since its introduction in 2015.

The popularity of motorized two-wheelers in France stayed relatively stable between 2020 and 2021—11 percent of French consumers reported intending to purchase a two-wheeler within twelve months in a November 2021 survey, which was the same share of consumers recorded in 2020. Motorcycle sales in the country reached over 210,500 units—a swift recovery from the drop recorded in 2020 at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the motorcycle retail industry was still relatively small. The French motorcycle retail and repair sector had an annual turnover (taxes excluded) of 5.2 billion euros in 2019. However, motorcycle retail only accounted for 2.7 percent of this revenue, with wholesale amounting to 2.8 percent. By contrast, the motorcycle repair segment was the most lucrative within the overall motorcycle industry. The sector has also been impacted by the cost-of-living increases and price inflation recorded throughout 2021 and 2022. The monthly inflation rate in France reached 6.8 percent in July 2022, which was the highest level on record between September 2018 and September 2022. The Consumer Price Index of motorcycles has also been rapidly growing, up to 112.2 in September 2022 compared to 2015, the base year. This steady increase in motorcycle prices since May 2020 was faster than the one for new and used cars in France. A market dominated by motorcycles. Motorcycles were the best-selling motorized two-wheeler type in France. In 2021, new bike sales totaled over 210,500 units, while nearly 694,400 used motorcycles were registered in the country that same year. Comparatively, just over 98,600 new mopeds were sold in France in 2021. Motorcycles with an engine size above 1,000 cubic centimeters were the most popular in the country, followed by those with an engine size between 500 and 749 cubic centimeters. However, there were segments in which mopeds overtook motorcycles in popularity. Most electric two-wheeler sales in France were mopeds, which reached close to 20,800 sales in 2021 and comprised around 81.93 percent of this electrified market. Mopeds were also the most stolen motorized two-wheeler type in the country, at around 63 scooter thefts per thousand mopeds in 2021. This is partly due to the use motorcyclists make of mopeds. In 2020, approximately 47 percent of trips made using scooters and light motorcycles were in urban areas. This was the largest share of urban area trips compared to heavy motorcycles—mainly used on secondary and primary roads. Commuting boosts the industry. Motorcycles were not the preferred mode of transportation of French consumers for commuting, with only four percent of respondents to a November 2022 survey mentioning using their bikes as part of their daily commute. This share was even lower for consumers using their mopeds or shared mopeds. However, as of 2020, commuting was the second-leading purpose for motorized two-wheeler usage in the country. This reliance on two-wheelers for commuting partly contextualizes why the Ile-de-France region records the highest number of issued motorcycle licenses. The region boasts high urbanization and population volume, primarily due to Paris’s development.

The United States (U.S.) has a long history of automotive production and is home to some of the largest and most famous automotive brands in the world. The years 2020 and 2021 were, however, challenging years for many industries, including the automotive industry. The global motor vehicle production dropped by some 11 million units in 2020 compared to the previous year. While 2021 saw an improvement in the production output, it was still below the pre-pandemic levels. In the NAFTA region, vehicle production was down by almost 21 percent in 2020. In 2021, the production in the region stayed the same, showing signs that the road to recovery might be long. In 2022, about 1.8 million cars were produced in the U.S., an increase of over 13 percent compared with 2021. On the other hand, retail sales of light vehicles in the U.S. decreased year-over-year, reaching approximately 13.8 million units in 2022. Manufacturers shift towards electric vehicles. Although electric vehicles (EVs) accounted for just a small share of all light vehicle sales in the U.S. in 2021, their popularity has grown over the past years. Between 2016 and 2020, sales of plug-in light vehicles in the U.S. grew almost four-fold, reaching some 608,000 sold units in 2021. This surge in sales has made the U.S. the third biggest market for electric vehicles in the world, trailing only Europe and China. Along with the growing sales, the number of public fast electric vehicle chargers in the U.S. increased substantially as well. In 2021, there were nearly 22,000 charges on the American streets, an increase of more than 600 percent compared with 2016. With substantial backing from the government, EVs are bound to play a more important role in the future of U.S. mobility, mainly due to EVs’ energy efficiency and low carbon footprint. President Biden’s new target for EVs to account for 50 percent of new car sales by 2030 was generally met with the support of major U.S. car manufacturers. While Ford aims at meeting Biden’s target, General Motors went even further, committing to only manufacture electric vehicles by 2035. Major U.S. carmakers. Traditional U.S. car manufacturers are consolidated into three major brands: Ford, General Motors, and Stellantis. These manufacturers produce a variety of vehicles, including passenger cars and trucks. Most of the models offered by these companies are powered by gasoline or diesel, though these automakers are starting to enter the EV market. Tesla, on the other hand, is an exclusively electric U.S. car manufacturer. Tesla’s Model Y was the best-selling electric vehicle in 2022. American brands tended to lead the U.S. market with General Motors and Ford consistently ranking amongst the leaders in terms of market share. Japanese-based Toyota and Honda, however, produced the most popular cars and sport-utility vehicles among U.S. consumers in 2022.

Thailand's motorcycle industry began in the 1960s when the Board of Investment aimed to decrease imports of motorcycles by supporting domestic production. Initially, the sector was limited to assembling imported parts within Thailand. However, after Honda opened its first production plants in the kingdom, other Japanese motorcycle manufacturers, like Yamaha, Suzuki, and Kawasaki, entered the market. Today, Thailand is a major producer of smaller motorcycles and scooters. Most of the production plants are in the central and eastern region, in close proximity to major commercial ports. Although the country mainly supplies the domestic demand for motorcycles, Thailand’s export of motorcycles is some of the highest worldwide. The most important export market for motorcycles produced in Thailand are countries of the European Union. Why the majority of motorcycle riders reside in Thailand. The culture of owning a motorcycle is deeply rooted in Thailand. Motorcycles are affordable and provide an efficient mode of transportation for many Thai people. The government has implemented policies to support the domestic motorcycle manufacturing industry, which has led to the production of modestly priced motorcycles. While two-wheelers are a cost-efficient mode of transport, particularly in urban areas where traffic congestion is a common problem, poor traffic law enforcement in said areas has led to a high share of fatalities among motorcyclists in Thailand. Another factor for its popularity is the warm climate in Thailand, which allows for year-round motorcycle use, making it a favored choice for commuting and leisure activities. Furthermore, the widespread availability of motorcycle taxis, a common form of public transportation in major cities in Thailand, has also contributed to the high number of motorcyclists in the country. Leading brand in Thailand. Honda has been the leading motorcycle brand in Thailand since the 1990s. Honda's success can be attributed to its early entry into the market, investment in production facilities and distribution networks, and ability to produce motorcycles that meet the specific needs of Thai consumers. The Japanese manufacturer has developed fuel-efficient and easy to maneuver motorcycles, which are popular in heavily congested areas in Bangkok and other large cities. Moreover, Honda offers a wide range of models, appealing to different consumer groups. The company’s established presence in Thailand and the ability to adapt to changing consumer preferences have helped it maintain its position as the leading motorcycle brand in the kingdom.

In 2024, some 163,000 electric vehicles (EV) drove on Israel’s roads—a 70 percent jump in just one year. This figure was up from almost nothing just half a decade ago. Amid steady growth in the automotive sector, the electrification boom has emerged as its defining trend. This rapid uptake owes much to the arrival of Chinese carmakers and a generous tax regime. Looking ahead, industry watchers have suggested that EU tariffs on Chinese imports may complicate supply chains to neighbouring Israel. Furthermore, a gradual removal of tax incentives looks set to push prices higher, cooling demand for new EVs. Even so, government forecasters envision a complete transition of the sector by 2050, with 6.4 million electric cars predicted. This underscores the sheer scale of the shift ahead. Tesla trails, BYD leads Israeli EV sales. Chinese manufacturers have swiftly conquered Israel’s electric vehicle market. In 2024, BYD kept its crown as the most popular EV brand among local buyers, selling nearly 16,700 cars. Tesla and MG followed, registering about 8,200 and 6,300 new vehicles respectively. Chinese makers now account for close to two-thirds of all EV imports, underscoring their outsized presence. On the other hand, in the hybrid car segment, traditional brands from Japan and Korea maintained their leading position. Toyota was the most popular hybrid car manufacturer in 2024, registering nearly 28,700 new hybrid vehicles in the country. Yet as EV sales gather pace, growth in the hybrid market has slowed. These trends highlight the disruptive potential of Chinese automotive upstarts. EVs to transform Israel’s power grid. As Israel’s transport sector shifts to electric power, the demand for electricity is set to rise sharply. By 2050, annual energy requirements for EVs are forecast to reach approximately 21 terawatt hours—more than a quarter of the 80 terawatt hours of electricity produced in the country in 2024. Most of the additional demand on the grid will come from passenger vehicles, with growth expected to peak between 2030 and 2040. For now, charging infrastructure is expanding primarily into private homes. A recent survey found that Israeli EV owners overwhelmingly favor home charging. Public charging, by contrast, remains costly and insufficiently developed. Ensuring a robust energy system will be critical to supporting Israel’s electrification drive in the years ahead.

The face of urban mobility is changing in many cities around the world. The most visible sign of this, is the increasing number and variety of bicycles, e-bikes, scooters, mopeds, and cars appearing on streets, ready to be picked up for a ride by anyone with access to the correct app. Currently, personally owned cars and bicycles, public transport, and walking continue to dominate urban transport, but this is beginning to change. While shared on-demand mobility accounted for around eight percent of trips in megacities in 2021, this share is expected to rise to nearly a fifth in 2030. This increasing demand is reflected in the projected growth of the shared micromobility market value, which is expected to triple between 2020 and 2030, growing to 28 billion U.S. dollars. To address this emerging market, a plethora of micro-mobility start-ups have begun offering their services in cities around the world. High competition challenges new-comers. Micromobility start-ups have been entering a highly competitive market, with many operators and an unstable operating environment. Sharing services are not yet uniformly regulated across regions, and policymakers are still deciding how and where operators can offer -them. Backlash towards this can result in whole segments of the market being banned, as in Paris, where shared e-scooters were taken off the street in 2023. Nonetheless, sharing providers have been some of the most successful electric micromobility start-ups in terms of raising funding, with Bird, TIER Mobility, and VOI Technology topping that list. However, consolidation of the market and a tighter grip of policymakers on regulating access to local markets is making it harder for newer sharing scheme start-ups to establish themselves. Instead of focusing on operating sharing schemes, some micromobility start-ups entering the market now are focusing on other areas, such as business-to-business solutions. Start-ups bidding for funding in recent years include some focusing on long-term bicycle leasing or bicycle hire to delivery riders. Investment in a growing market. Investors have taken note of the potential of the shared and private micromobility market. Investment in mobility services start-ups, including services outside the micromobility market, totaled 18.6 billion U.S. dollars in 2021. Early-stage venture capital funding for two- and three-wheeler start-ups stood at 52 million U.S. dollars worldwide, climbing to just under 66 million U.S. dollars in 2022. Investment levels have, however, been variable. Venture capital funding had stood at a similar level in the early 2010s but dropped dramatically in the following years before shooting up again in 2019. While there is clear potential for growth for the micromobility market as a whole, it is less certain how micromobility start-ups will fare in a market with increasingly established market leaders and a trend towards consolidation, yet innovation and new product niches could continue to provide a path to success for new start-ups entering the micromobility market.

The United States has a long history of coal extraction, as well as the largest proven coal reserves in the world. These reserves literally fueled the Industrial Revolution in the northern U.S. and employed a good deal of the Appalachian population since that time. However, environmental concerns and shifting demand have changed the industry’s composition in recent years, and coal production in North America has generally been falling in recent years. Sources of coal production in the United States. The coalbed thickness of just over half of coal produced in the U.S. was over 120 inches (300cm), and much of this can be reached with surface mining. This explains why coal has been a reliable energy source, even before the development of advanced mining techniques. The most famous (and numerous) coal mines are in West Virginia, but Wyoming is by far the leading U.S. state in coal production. Until 2017, Pennsylvania was the state with the highest number of coal mines. Since 2018, however, West Virginia has had the most active coal mines, with 151 as of 2022. Overall, the number of active coal mines is has been declining since 2000. The U.S. coal industry has been generally decreasing in profitability gradually over the years. The leading company, Peabody Energy, had a slight increase in revenue in 2017 and 2018, as did Arch Coal. While both companies had record low revenues in 2020, both also experienced dramatic revenue increases in 2022, with Arch Coal experiencing its highest revenue in 10 years. Profile of a U.S. coal miner. Coal mining employees in the U.S. are overwhelmingly men without a university degree. In spite of the lack of post-secondary education, they earned an average annual salary of 102,855 U.S. dollars per year as of 2022. However, following production trends, there are fewer coal-mining jobs, particularly in the Appalachian region. As of 2022, the total number of U.S. coal mining jobs amounted to 43,524. That was a significant decrease compared to a decade earlier, when there were 89,838 U.S. coal miners. The highest number of U.S. coal mining jobs as of 2022 were in West Virginia, with 12,997. As a result of fewer surface mines, tens of thousands of acres are reclaimed from coal mining each year.

As of 2022, the total volume of liquified natural gas traded worldwide was 542 billion cubic meters. The trading volume has steadily increased in the past 50 years. The global average spot charter rate for a 131,500 cubic meter liquefied natural gas storage vessel was around 89.2 thousand U.S. dollars per day in the same year. Global context. Though the United States and Russia are the largest natural gas producers worldwide, the Middle East is still a major player in the energy sector, as the region houses the worlds largest natural gas reserves. The leading players of the natural gas sector from the Middle East are Iran, with a production volume of 259.4 billion cubic meters, and Qatar, with over 178.4 billion cubic meters. Saudi Arabia is the ninth largest gas producer with 120.4 billion cubic meters. The natural gas power generation capacity in the Middle East will grow from around 965.4 terawatt hours to over 1,667 terawatt hours by 2035. Gas fields. There are three active gas fields in the Middle East. The leading gas field is located offshore in the Persian Gulf and is shared between Qatar and Iran. Increasing the production of gas was Qatar’s long-term plan to diversify from crude oil. Qatar is therefore the world’s leading exporter of liquified natural gas (LNG). Due to the long war with Iraq and foreign embargos until the 90s, oil and gas exports were not a priority for the Iranian government. The country only started to increase its potential in the energy sector since the government of the reformist president Khatami. However, there has been tension between Qatar and Iran regarding the usage of shared oilfields and the output amount from both countries. A significant export mode of Middle Eastern gas is through midstream pipelines. Iran has the largest network with a total length of over 30 thousand kilometers. It was followed by Saudi Arabia with almost 13 thousand kilometers in pipeline length. The majority of Qatari gas is shipped as liquified natural gas.

The first electrified vehicle available on the Japanese car market was a hybrid electric vehicle, the Toyota Prius. Launched in 1997, it enjoyed remarkable success, marking the beginning of the commercial involvement of Japan's automotive industry with electrified vehicles. In 2024, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) were the most-bought passenger car type in Japan, after gasoline-only automobiles were dethroned for the first time in 2023.  Hybrid electric vehicles dominate the Japanese market. There are four common electrified vehicle types, all of which use, partly or entirely, electricity as a source of energy. Vehicle types that combine classic combustion engines with electric propulsion include hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) solely rely on the onboard battery for propulsion. Lastly, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen as fuel. BEVs, FCEVs, and PHEVs require an infrastructure of dedicated charging or fueling stations, while HEVs use the existing petroleum-based infrastructure to refuel. In 2024, over 60 percent of new vehicle registrations among regular-sized cars in Japan were HEVs, continuing the upward trajectory in the domestic market. Contrary to the success story of HEVs, other “next-generation vehicle” types continued to struggle, with the total share of new car registrations of BEVs, PHEVs, and FCEVs amounting to roughly three percent. The long, winding road to carbon neutrality in Japan's transportation sector. The transportation sector in Japan emits significant amounts of CO₂, most of which is caused by private and commercial road vehicles. In 2022, about 16 percent of Japan’s CO₂ emissions came from automobiles. Since Japan aims to become carbon-neutral by 2050, the transportation sector has to undergo drastic changes to achieve this goal. One of the automobile industry’s stated targets is for all sales in the domestic market to be electrified vehicles by 2035. While the success of HEVs  is a cause for celebration, this vehicle type is not emission-free as it also utilizes a conventional combustion engine. Other electric vehicle types have zero tailpipe emissions but currently comprise a negligible portion of Japan’s vehicle market. Moreover, even vehicle types with zero tailpipe emissions, such as BEVs and FCEVs, are often not entirely green. For instance, hydrogen refueling stations used by FCEVs typically provide “blue” or “gray” hydrogen created in industrial processes that emit CO₂. Similarly, charging stations for BEVs and PHEVs use energy from Japan’s energy supply grid, which still largely relies on fossil fuel resources. The way forward. The Japanese automotive industry is pursuing a multi-directional approach to reach its emission reduction targets by further developing and deploying next-generation vehicles. This categorization includes the entire range of electrified vehicles, as well as gasoline and diesel vehicles that employ technologies to mitigate emissions. Despite substantial government subsidies for vehicle types such as BEVs and FCEVs, Japanese consumers still seem reluctant to choose fossil-fuel-free propulsion vehicle options. The high price of cars, apprehensions regarding vehicle performance, and the perceived lack of infrastructure are consumers’ leading concerns. Further government investment in infrastructure and increasing incentives for the private sector might be required to break new ground, particularly with the hitherto less successful electric vehicle types.

South Korea is the seventh country in the world to launch a satellite weighing over one ton into orbit. In June 2022, the nation successfully launched the Nuri rocket into space, which was developed entirely domestically. This highlights the results of investments made by the South Korean space industry. Compared to leading countries like the United States or Russia, South Korea is a relative newcomer to the industry. Hence, a focus on research and development is evident when allocating funds. Satellites are a core component of the industry. Much like the nation's export-oriented economy, international trade figures show that the space industry boasts a significant trade surplus. The major export sectors were satellite services, equipment, and manufacturing; these were also the leading import sectors of the industry. Satellites are critical for various modern businesses, including those operating in the television or telecommunications industry. Accordingly, satellites are a prominent aspect of the space industry, and the South Korean government has budgeted large sums toward satellite development and utilization. The share of satellite launches worldwide by SpaceX is often mentioned as something to aspire to, although it is generally accepted that the South Korean space industry is far from maturation. The South Korean space industry is set to take off. The budget for space development has fluctuated as projects and initiatives start and end over time. Nevertheless, the domestic space industry seems primed for growth in the years to come, with the number of relevant entities continuing to increase over time. Enterprises active in the aerospace industry, such as Korea Aerospace Industries, contribute to space technology development within the country alongside various research institutions and universities. With government spending pledged to increase in the future, it remains to be seen if the South Korean space industry can maintain its upward trajectory.

As France aims to accelerate its energy transition, the French government contends with various challenges. One of these hurdles comes from the transportation sector, the industry with the highest energy demand in the country. To address these issues, the government has encouraged consumers to switch to electric vehicles, in line with European Union goals. This effort has so far been met with relative success: In 2023, there were over one million electric vehicles in circulation in France, most of which were battery-electric. To accommodate the needs of this growing fleet and to encourage adoption, France has invested in its charging infrastructure. As of 2023, the country deployed a public charging infrastructure above projected European Union targets for 2024 and 2025, but remained behind 2026 targets. Differences across regions. The French charging infrastructure broke records in 2023, with over 118,000 public chargers in operation in the country. Most of this electric vehicle supply equipment, however, offered alternating current charging (AC), and the majority of these AC chargers had a power between 7.4 and 22 kilowatts. AC charging tended to be slower to recharge an electric car than its direct current counterparts due to its need to be transformed by on-board chargers. While access to fast-charging is a cross-region issue, it is particularly observable in the Île-de-France region, where Paris is located. The average power at public charging points in this region was around 24,400 volt-ampere (around 19.5 kilowatts, assuming a power factor of 0.8) in 2023. This was the lowest average power recorded in the country, though Île-de-France was the region with the largest charging network and second-largest total charging capacity that same year. A preference for home charging. While France’s public charging network has grown through 2023, French consumers still widely preferred the convenience of home charging to public stations. Over six in ten electric vehicles owners reported charging their vehicle most often at home, compared to two in ten using workplace charging and 17 percent using public charging. Private chargers, amounting to over one million charging points, represented the largest share of the overall available charging points in France. However, home charging was not a possibility for every electric vehicle owner. The lack of private parking space was by far the leading reason for EV owners to not have access to private charging, in part due to how highly urban areas are designed. While French electric vehicle charging infrastructure has been growing in the past years, it faces many challenges, including meeting consumers’ needs and geographical challenges. Despite this, as of January 2024, most EV owners were satisfied with the available public charging options.

In 2024, Latin America attracted investments from the international automotive group Stellantis for the development and production of decarbonization technologies. However, while the region presents various opportunities for automakers, its electric vehicle market is still emerging. November 2024 forecasts project the regional EV market will reach some 41.3 billion U.S. dollars in revenue, up less than one billion compared to 2023. Selected countries are faster to grow their electric vehicle market than others, but regional sales growth is expected to be slower between 2024 and 2029, after shooting up in 2023. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles should be the most impacted by this sales volume slow-down, which reflects the fact these tend to be less popular than their battery electric vehicle counterparts in many domestic markets. National incentives for an all-electric fleet. The state of the electric vehicle market is intrinsically linked to national incentives to propel it further. Brazil reported the region’s most significant renewable energy capacity at just under 175,300 megawatts in 2023. However, most of its electric vehicle sales were hybrid electric vehicles, primarily powered by their internal combustion engine, as the government faced pressure from lobbies against its 2018 Rota 2030 policy to stop ICE vehicle sales by 2030. Despite these challenges, Brazil also boasted the largest plug-in electric vehicle market in Latin America, partly as many Brazilian states offered tax exemptions for EVs, but still relies heavily on plug-in hybrid sales rather than all-electric vehicles. At the end of 2030, the country announced a new green mobility program to replace its Rota 2030 policy, including four billion U.S. dollars in incentives. While the impact of this new program remains to be seen, it showcases that regional leaders are investing in growing their EV market. A young market ripe for competition. The growth of the electric vehicle market in Latin America is also an opportunity for automakers to increase their visibility within the region. While Tesla halted its gigafactory plans in Mexico until at least after the presidential elections in the United States, Chinese companies have been entering the Latin American electric vehicle market. JAC, BYD, and Chery were among the brands with the largest shares of the Latin American EV revenue in 2023. In Brazil, three of the ten best-selling EV models were from BYD, with another two from other Chinese brands. These Asian brands were also popular in other countries, such as Chile and Colombia. This success is in part due to the price point of Chinese electric vehicles, which tend to be attractive for the price sensitive consumers of the region. Importantly, this increase in sales of electric vehicles from China contributes to reshaping the country’s economic relationship with Latin America: The region presents strategic opportunities in the EV value chain, in particular regarding the mining of critical minerals such as lithium which are found in large quantities in the region. The Latin American electric vehicle market is slowly growing, impacted by domestic markets which evolve at differing rates. National incentives have the potential to boost EV adoption in each country, but non-rechargeable hybrids remain the most popular segment in many markets. While companies are increasingly investing in Latin America, Chinese automakers are some of the enterprises spearheading these investments and have recorded some success in entering the regional market.

Thailand’s insufficient EV charging infrastructure is a serious obstacle that is delaying the country's shift to electric mobility. The country’s electric vehicle market is expanding quickly thanks to government backing and an increase in EV registrations. The development of public charging infrastructure is therefore crucial as the demand for EVs grows. To tackle this issue, the Thai government and commercial sectors are collaborating to extend its network of charging stations. However, there are still obstacles to overcome to en sure that the rate at which charging stations are installed keeps up with the rapidly expanding EV market. The EV-charging landscape in Thailand. Although the number of EV charging stations in Thailand has increased significantly, there are still too few chargers relative to the number of registered EVs. In 2023, the number of EV charging locations in Thailand amounted to more than 2,600. As EV registrations increase, the ratio of EVs to charging locations is predicted to grow, posing a problem for the infrastructure. Leading EV countries like China, on the other hand, have substantially lower ratios. The distribution of charging stations is still not uniform; the majority are in Bangkok, and there is still insufficient coverage in rural areas. Under the "Blue Point" project, the Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) runs EV Station PluZ, the largest charging network in the nation, which has expanded beyond gas stations to include malls and urban areas. Access to charging stations is also being expanded through collaborations between Bangchak gas stations and the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA). Even with these initiatives, additional growth is required to meet demand, especially in upcountry areas where enterprises depend on long-distance transportation. Thailand allows for the possibility of using both the CCS2 and CHAdeMO fast-charging protocols for EV consumers. But if expansion initiatives fall short, the disparity between EV sales and the availability of charging stations might keep growing. The same goes for electric motorcycle battery swapping stations, which are mostly aggregated in Bangkok and its vicinity. Is Thailand’s EV charging network ready to ease consumer fears? The advantages of electric vehicles for the environment and their reduced long-term operating costs are attracting more Thai consumers. EV ownership has become increasingly attractive due to government subsidies, tax advantages, and initiatives. But for many people, especially outside of Bangkok where the infrastructure for charging is still lacking, range anxiety still poses a problem. Unsurprisingly, in a survey conducted in 2023 in Thailand, the leading concern about all battery-powered electric vehicles was the lack of public EV charging infrastructure. The convenience of charging stations is enhanced in metropolitan areas, yet the growing quantity of electric vehicles per station is causing congestion at these locations. The charging interface protocols have an impact on the user experience as well. While using both the Japanese-standard CHAdeMO and the European-standard CCS2 gives purchasers options, it also raises doubts about which standard will ultimately win out. To ensure they can confidently travel longer distances, Thai consumers are expecting faster charging times and wider coverage in rural areas. These worries will be lessened with the further expansion of charging stations, but for the time being, many prospective buyers are holding out for additional infrastructure advancements. Unlocking opportunities in Thailand’s growing EV charging market. The market for BEVs and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is still growing, thus there is a lot of room for expansion in Thailand's EV charging sector. To help overcome the gap between supply and demand, the government is providing incentives for businesses to build more charging stations, such as tax exemptions and subsidies. However, if EV sales continue to rise faster than infrastructure development, shortages may result, particularly in remote areas. Thailand's dedication to growing its EV industry puts it in a position to lead Southeast Asia's green energy transition. To meet the rising demand for charging stations in the future, there will need to be more competition among private businesses and cooperation with state-owned corporations.

The Audi Group has been ramping up its sustainability efforts in the past year, intending to offer one battery-electric model for all its core segments by 2027. However, despite these efforts, its brands did not rank the highest in the Sustainability Perceptions Value ranking. In 2024, its eponymous brand Audi was the seventh German brand in the ranking, with around 3.4 billion euros of its value contingent on maintaining a reputation for acting sustainably. Audi’s reputation is in part linked to the growing luxury car market, which amounted to almost 580 billion euros in market size in 2024. The brand, which is an integral part of the Audi Progressive Brand Group, was among the global bestsellers for premium cars, alongside fellow German makes BMW and Mercedes-Benz, both ranking higher on the Sustainability Perceptions Value ranking. One of the Volkswagen Group’s largest subsidiaries. With over 58.1 billion euros in revenue, Audi was the Progressive Brand Group’s flagship brand and accounted for some 18 percent of the Volkswagen Group’s total 2024 revenue. However, Audi’s annual revenue and operating profit decreased between 2023 and 2024. Its operating profit declined by 45 percent, mainly due to the negative effects of restructuring expenses in connection with the closure of the production at the Brussels site and lower demand. Audi’s car deliveries were also affected by this lower demand and declined to about 1.67 million car deliveries in 2024, which was almost 1.9 million deliveries in the previous year. Audi’s battery-electric vehicle production and deliveries also decreased, with consumers worldwide receiving some 164,480 fully electric Audis in 2024. However, none of the marque’s most-delivered models were strictly electric. That year, consumers preferred the Audi Q5 and A6 models to the Q4 e-tron, which recorded some 107,700 shipments. A strong consumer base amid competition in the luxury market. Audi’s competitors were mostly Tesla and other German luxury car brands, namely BMW and Mercedes-Benz. In 2024, both these marques reported higher global sales than the Volkswagen subsidiary, making it the fourth-best-selling luxury car make. However, Audi recorded a good loyalty score among its customers. In Germany, as of June 2024, 82 percent of respondents who owned Audi cars in the past reported being likely to purchase one again in the future, the second-highest loyalty score in the country. As of the same period, Audi topped the loyalty rankings in the United States and came in third in the United Kingdom. Audi’s significant financial contribution to the Progressive Brand Group and, by extension, to the Volkswagen Group make it one of the automotive manufacturer’s most successful brands, though progress is still ongoing for its electrification. On a global level, though Audi was not the luxury car best-selling make in 2024, it benefits from strong customer loyalty. However, as of 2025, Audi was not ranked in the top ten in terms of brand value in the automotive industry, whereas Porsche was the only VW Group’s marques to be a part of the most valuable automotive brands worldwide.

The aerospace and defense sector has been a relevant industry for decades. Still, the space race boom, the recovery of air traffic after the pandemic, and several new conflicts around the world have put A&D back in the spotlight. As a pioneer in this field, the U.S. American company Northrop Grumman is specialized in designing, developing, building, and supporting advanced technology products, from next-gen spacecraft to sophisticated defense systems. Officially born in 1994, after the acquisition of Grumman Aerospace by Northrop Aircraft, the Northrop Grumman Corporation (NG) has become a global leader in the A&D sector. In 2021, NG registered a sales revenue of approximately 35.7 billion U.S. dollars, a slight y-o-y decrease of around three percent but still above the 35 billion milestone for the second time in a row. Even if total sales suffered a minor setback in 2021, NG’s operating profit continued its upward trend reaching more than 5.6 billion U.S. dollars. NG and the space dream. When it comes to the different business divisions in NG, military-related businesses are the strongest ones. In 2021, revenues of the defense and mission systems division accounted for 42 percent of total sales. But in recent years, space systems have gained a strong presence, with crucial projects for the global space industry. Space-related projects are not a strange issue for NG, being one of its predecessors, Grumman Aerospace, the company in charge of the design and manufacturing of the Lunar Module used on the Apollo 11 mission. On more current projects, NG led the team who built NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The JWST was launched in December 2021, and it is the largest optical telescope in space, bringing to Earth images of space with the highest resolution so far. NG is also helping to boost the space race into its following stages. On November 2022, NASA launched the Space Launch System (SLS) flight as part of the Artemis program, which will bring humans back to the moon this decade. NG’s solid rocket boosters helped successfully propel the SLS and the Orion spacecraft into space, and the company will supply support for SLS and the Artemis missions through 2031. “No competition, no progress.”. Among the several companies in this field, NG has positioned itself on the leading board among giants like Lockheed Martin, Airbus, and Boeing. In 2021, NG ranked third among the most profitable A&D companies, behind Lockheed Martin and Airbus. Even if Boeing is one of the strongest players in this field, with revenues of more than 60 billion U.S. dollars, it has struggled to profit from its operations. Boeing reported operating losses for the third consecutive time in 2021, mainly caused by the 737 MAX groundings, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the stoppage in 787 Dreamliner jet deliveries. Precisely, N.G. also positions itself as an elite arms manufacturer and military services provider. In 2020, NG made it to the top five arms-producing companies worldwide with an arms sale revenue of 30.4 billion U.S. dollars, defeating defense systems experts like General Dynamics and BAE Systems.

Founded in 1937, shortly before the start of World War II, Volkswagen was initially established by the German Labour Front to build the VW Beetle, meant to become the most popular car in the country. Although its ownership was disputed after the war, Volkswagen was able to continue production in 1948 and has since grown to become the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. In its 2018 fiscal year, the Volkswagen Group generated a sales revenue of 235.85 billion euros. This was the highest figure since the beginning of the reporting period, having steadily increased revenues since 2009, with the fallout of the diesel emissions scandal seeming to have little effect on the group's performance. In the United Kingdom, Volkswagen held a 9.66 percent share of the new car market in July 2019, a decline compared to the same month the year previous. Nevertheless, the German carmaker was able to slowly grow its market presence compared to 2016, when market share oscillated around seven percent. In the first seven months of 2019, Volkswagen sold 126,074 passenger cars, putting it second behind U.S. brand Ford. The VW Golf was the most ubiquitous of VW Group car models on British roads. As of the fourth quarter of 2018, some one million units were registered in Great Britain. By comparison, the Audi A3 was the most prominent Audi model found in the country, with licensed vehicle numbers having grown to 419,193 units. In terms of commercial vehicle sales, Volkswagen had sold 56 small heavy goods vehicles with a gross weight between 3.5 and 6 metric tons by August 2019. The number of light commercial vehicles sold was significantly higher, amounting to 28,283 units in the same eight months period. This was mainly due to the continued popularity of its VW Transporter model.

Hungary has a long-established reputation as an automotive manufacturer, and now it is positioning itself as one of the pioneers in electric vehicle (EV) and battery manufacturing. The country has swiftly grown into a hub for electric vehicle investments, with multiple Eastern EV and battery giants operating in Hungary. However, following a peak in 2023, EV battery and dry cell production saw a significant decrease in the country due to Samsung SDI and SK on, the two largest producers, losing their market share to Chinese competitors offering lower prices. Car production numbers are peaking. As of 2023, the industrial production value of transport equipment totaled nearly 14 trillion forints. Even though following World War II, Hungary became one of the most significant producers and exporters of buses in Europe, in recent years, the automotive production sector's focus has shifted towards the assembly of foreign automotive brands. In 2023, the Hungarian car manufacturing sector produced a record-breaking number of 509,000 vehicles. There are four leading original transport equipment manufacturers operating in Hungary — namely Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, and Suzuki. Of the automotive companies, Audi was the most successful in 2024 in terms of revenue. It was followed by another German automobile company, Mercedes-Benz Manufacturing, with a revenue of over four billion euros. Moreover, BMW is building a full-scale vehicle manufacturing plant in Debrecen, which is expected to become operational by the end of 2025. All eyes on electric mobility. E-mobility is gaining ground among the population, as the number of vehicles registered under green license plates indicates. In May 2024, nearly 2,700 new green license plates were issued in the country, compared to only 510 in May 2020. When it comes to the most popular electric car brands, Tesla ranked in first place in 2024, with over 900 cars sold over the first four months, followed by Nissan and BYD. The electric vehicle market in Hungary is expected to undergo a great expansion. In 2024, the market revenue of battery electric vehicles totaled approximately 463 million euros. However, this figure is expected to decrease over the following years and amount to around 302 million U.S. dollars by 2024. As for plug-in electric vehicles, the market revenue is anticipated to increase to 957 million euros by 2029, compared to 384 million recorded in 2024. Hungary has long been known as an automotive manufacturing hub, specializing in the assembly of foreign car brands, such as Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, and Suzuki. However, to strengthen its role in the automotive sector, Hungary has been taking significant steps towards becoming a major player in electric vehicle battery manufacturing.

The German government sees electromobility as a driving force in what may become an overall energy transition in the country, namely a fossil fuel exit. Considering that the German automotive industry is one of the pillars of the national economy and also a key player on a global level, in an age when industries are expected to find climate- and environmentally friendly solutions for production and use, widespread access to electric vehicles could be both the dawning of a new, greener era and a massive revenue source. Charge first. In short, ideally electric cars should lead to reduced emissions, sustainable energy efficiency and more flexible mobility solutions for consumers. Vehicles are plugged into a charging station and charged from the existing electricity grid. Stations can be privately or publicly available. Electric cars are powered by rechargeable batteries. The types of electric cars available on the German market are hybrid, mild hybrid, battery electric and plug-in hybrid. Volkswagen is the best-selling electric car brand in the country, while Tesla is the leading electric car manufacturer in the world. In transition. The German government is keen to promote electromobility through various measures, which include expanding the charging station infrastructure in the country and enabling public procurement for public institutions wishing to buy electric vehicles. Electric vehicles include not just passenger cars, but also public transport such as buses. Implementing, or rather, integrating electric mobility on a national level brings with it a list of necessary fundamental changes. These changes essentially mean the cooperation of the electric power and automotive industries, with a wide-reaching overhaul for both. Electricity from renewable energy sources is desirable for charging, to reach sustainability goals. However, to ensure the successful launch of electromobility in Germany, vehicles need to be connected to electricity grids and transport networks, and automobile manufacturers and suppliers face a transition to regularly producing electric car parts and systems.

The use of motorcycles in the United Kingdom saw a noticeable rise between 2019 and 2023, with the number of motorcycles registered in 2023 being about six percent higher than in 2019. This growth can be attributed in part to the COVID-19 pandemic, with socially distanced rides becoming more popular and the boom of delivery services leading to the growing use of two-wheelers because of it. This change, however, was not reflected in sales. Sales value plummeted in the second quarter of 2020, when the UK went into its first COVID-19 lockdown. The following quarter expenditure rebounded but then dropped again and stabilized at a quarterly sales expenditure of just under 200 million pounds. Honda remains the leading manufacturer. Despite the overall slump in sales value, Honda remained the most popular motorcycle brand and sales began to rise again in 2021, reaching over 20 thousand units sold. New registrations for the brand fluctuate seasonally, with the brand's strongest months tending to be in spring. In comparison with the 20,155 motorcycles Honda sold in 2023, Yamaha, the second most popular brand sold around 12,250 new two-wheelers. BMW has overtaken British motorcycle brand Triumph, which has dropped to fourth place in motorcycle sales in the UK in 2023. England accounts for largest share of motorcycles. Most motorcycles in the UK were registered in England in 2023, coming in at about 1.2 million motorcycles. In particular, the South East region of England saw the greatest share of motorcycle registrations with just over 230 thousand motorcycles. After several years of disruption in the sector, sales of motorcycles are projected to grow in the coming years, it will reach an estimated sales volume of 120,740 units in 2028. This rise in motorcycle sales beyond the COVID-19 pandemic may partly be explained by the rising cost of living in the UK, where motorcycles present a better economic option offering lower upfront and running costs.

The heavy goods vehicle market in the United Kingdom has faced unprecedented challenges throughout 2020 and 2021. Heavy goods vehicle registrations bounced back above their pre-pandemic levels in 2021, reaching 504,600 vehicles in circulation. Still, the truck driver shortage rattled the market, resulting from an aging workforce and Brexit. With the ongoing economic uncertainty faced by the UK, the country's overall commercial vehicle production in 2021 did not offset the output drop linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite these issues, the UK reported one of Europe's youngest medium and heavy commercial vehicle fleets, at an average of 9.8 years old. A Diverse HGV Market. In 2021, tippers were one of the most common types of heavy goods vehicles, with some 40,500 licensed units. Between 2010 and 2021, the number of licensed dropside vehicles remained relatively steady and accumulated to 22,000 in 2021. In contrast, curtain-sided commercial vehicles rose three percent year-over-year after the pandemic to 34,200 units in 2021. Most of the heavy goods vehicles on the road in the UK were vehicles over 41 metric tons. This weight class amounted to 131,100 units, followed by HGVs between eight and 18 metric tons at 105,100 units. Stellantis was the leading commercial vehicle automaker in the UK in 2021, with an output of over 54,000 units. As of the second quarter of 2022, its Fiat Ducato was the most registered vehicle model in the UK. However, despite Stellantis' apparent popularity, DAF Trucks was the best-selling HGV brand in 2021, reporting over 11,500 new sales in the UK market. The Alternative Fuel Segment Is Still Underdeveloped. Despite the increase in HGV sales across nations in 2021, the alternative fuel segment of the market remains underdeveloped. Diesel was the leading fuel type for medium and heavy commercial vehicles in the UK, at 98.6 percent of the vehicles in circulation in 2020. This share remained stable compared to 2019. At 0.2 percent, hybrid HGVs were the most popular alternative fuel segment, followed by plug-in electric HGVs. Around 520 battery-electric HGVs were licensed in the UK in 2021, compared to 28,307 fully electric light goods vehicles. Low-emission HGVs have fallen behind their light goods counterparts partly due to a lack of charging infrastructure adapted to heavy long-haul vehicles.

The light goods vehicle market in the United Kingdom has been rattled by the pandemic and global chip shortage, as well as by the changes resulting from Brexit. Production of commercial vehicles in the United Kingdom hiked up in 2021, rising by some 11.3 percent year-over-year to some 73,600 units. This output increase was not enough to offset the drop recorded at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, and 2021 production was close to six percent under the UK's 2019 production. Just over 51 percent of UK-produced commercial vehicles were exported. However, the share of exports decreased in 2021, partly due to new rules for trade with the European Union—one of the UK's main trade partners, which imported around 834 million euros worth of commercial vehicles and buses from the UK in 2021. Light Goods Vehicle Lead the Commercial Vehicle Market. Light goods vehicles represent an important part of the goods vehicle market in the United Kingdom. As of 2020, there were roughly 4.4 million registered light goods vehicles in Great Britain —a steady increase since 2005. This registration volume represented around 89.7 percent of Great Britain's commercial vehicle fleet. England had the highest number of licensed light trucks out of all the regions, with its South East region seeing the most registrations at just under 758,700. On average, vehicles in the United Kingdom fleet were close to nine years old, with the largest share of vehicles being between six and 13 years of age. The most common type of commercial vehicle in 2021 was the box van. Nearly 55 percent of this box van figure were box vans weighing below 7.5 metric tons, classifying them as light goods vehicles. The market is also following the automotive industry's shift towards new energy vehicles, with nearly four percent of new light commercial vehicle sales in the UK being alternative fuel vehicles. Battery-electric was the most popular electric light goods vehicle type in 2021. Ford Dominates the Light Goods Vehicle Sales. In 2021, the Ford Transit Custom was the best-selling light goods vehicle model in the United Kingdom, followed by the Ford Transit. The volume of cumulative licenses for the Ford Transit in Great Britain reached over one million units that year, and registrations have steadily grown since 2000. This popularity helped make Ford the best-selling light commercial vehicle brand in the UK in 2021. Ford's 2021 new registrations amounted to almost 120,800 units, more than three times the sales volume of Volkswagen, which was second in the ranking. In contrast, Volkswagen was the leading car company in the country in 2021, reporting market shares of close to nine percent.

As the country producing the most passenger cars in the world, the passenger car market for China is a key industry for the country. China is estimated to have produced over 21.41 million units of passenger cars in 2021, around 2.2 times more than the second-place holder Japan. The number of passenger cars in China has been growing steadily since the last decade, reaching almost 241.7 million in 2020. That year, around 19.7 million passenger vehicles were new registered, among which a vast majority were small passenger vehicles. Traditionally, majority of the vehicles produced in China catered for domestic demand, where only almost a few percent of the cars were produced for export. A large share of China's exported cars is destined for other parts of Asia because of their relatively more competitive price range. Most popular types and brands. Partly related to the relatively smaller family sizes in China, the most popular type of passenger cars in China has been sedan for a long time, until recently surpassed by SUVs. As of January 2021, around 1.02 million units of sedans were sold in China, while 1.06 million units of SUVs were sold in the same month. Despite international car brands being more popular than domestic in general, Chinese brands dominated the market with over 44 percent of the market share in 2021. However, in terms of individual brands, two Volkswagen ventures, namely FAW-Volkswagen and Shanghai Volkswagen, have been the leading passenger car manufacturers in China, with a combined sales of three million passenger vehicles in 2021. Demand for new energy passenger cars surged. In 2021, new energy passenger vehicle sales in China hit a record high, with cumulative sales of 2.7 million passenger battery electric vehicles and 600,000 passenger plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Such growing demand for new energy passenger vehicles also continued into the first quarter of 2022. With the highest number of electric vehicles in use in the world, China has also made electric passenger vehicles a major export commodity. In particular, battery electric passenger cars, whose export volume reached about 500,000 units in 2021, accounted for 90 percent of the electric vehicle export volume and 31 percent of the total passenger car export volume for the year, respectively. The best-selling new energy passenger car brand in China was BYD, which was closely followed by SAIC-GM-Wuling, a joint venture between SAIC Motor, General Motors, and Liuzhou Wuling. In terms of the new energy passenger car model, SAIC-GM-Wuling’s battery-electric minivan, the Wuling Hongguang Mini EV topped the list, with sales of about 395,450 units in 2021. Tesla’s two models (Model Y and Model 3) ranked second and third, with respective sales of 169,850 units and 150,890 units in that year.

In the past ten years, the sales value of electrical equipment manufactured in the United Kingdom (UK) has seen a net decrease, dropping to roughly 907 million British pounds in 2020. Product costs, on the other hand, have been growing recently: between July 2020 and July 2021, production costs of electric lighting equipment in the UK increased by more than 10 percent. Additionally, export figures were growing up until 2019, with roughly 567 million British pounds worth of lamps and lighting fittings exported in 2019. However, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the export value dropped to just around 470 million British pounds in 2020, the lowest figure in the previous five years. Declining sales of lighting and lighting equipment. The sales volume of a variety of UK manufactured lamps has taken a dip as well. For example,  sales of electric lighting for motor vehicles in the UK were down by 30 percent in 2020 compared with the previous year, resulting in a decrease of the sales value of about 23 percent in the same period. While the volume of portable electric lamps sold in the country in 2020 almost doubled compared with 2019, their sales value decreased by about 16 percent. Regarding developments within the manufacturing industry for lighting equipment, the past decade has seen fluctuating  sales values of plastic parts for lamps and lighting fittings. A peak of 86.1 million British pounds was recorded in 2012 before figures declined to around 50.3 million British pounds in 2020. Similarly, the sales revenue of ceiling and wall lighting fittings recorded a slight net decrease between 2008 and 2020, with a peak in 2015 at some 436.7 million British pounds. Sales revenue of main manufacturers take a hit in 2020. Signify Commercial UK, Thorn Lighting, and Holophane are counted among the biggest lighting manufacturers in the UK. Between 2016 and 2020, sales revenues of the three companies were generally declining. The year 2020 proved to be especially challenging for these companies: all of them generated the lowest revenue of the past five years. While Thorn Lighting’s and Signify Commercial UK’s revenue contracted by some 10 percent and 14 percent in 2020 compared with 2019, respectively, Holophane suffered a dip in revenue of almost 22 percent.

The first fuel stations, also referred to as petrol stations in the United Kingdom, were established with the invention of the motorcar in the 1880s in Germany, with England opening its first commercial station in 1919. Today, petrol stations often come with a retail store attached, selling lubricants, motor oils, and consumer goods apart from different automotive fuel types. Despite the UK being Europe's second largest car market, the country only ranks sixth in terms of number of petrol stations in Europe. Italy is home to the greatest number of such sites, with figures roughly 2.5 times the number reported for the UK. Number of operational fuel stations in decline. From 2000 to 2021, over 35 percent of UK petrol stations closed, although the rate at which numbers decreased had slowed by 2010. Figures fell to their lowest point by late 2021, when only 8,378 sites were operational or in development. The independent distributor Certas Energy saw the most petrol station closures of any brand, with 14 stations being made obsolete between 2020 and 2021. By comparison, Shell had opened 36 new petrol stations, more than any other brand. UK has one of the highest fuel prices in Europe. The UK is one of the most expensive countries for diesel fuel sales in Europe. As of February 2022, diesel fuel costs averaged around 1.51 British pounds per liter. Taxes and duties in the UK account for 83 pence per liter, more than in any other European country, with the pre-tax price at 68 pence per liter. The average UK diesel price saw a net increase in the last five years, reaching 151.6 British pence per liter in February 2022 – a high largely due to the developing Russia-Ukraine war. Supermarkets consistently offered the most competitive prices. In 2021, diesel bought at supermarket affiliated stores was nearly four pence cheaper per liter when compared to the UK mean. It is thus unsurprising that supermarkets are also among the leading UK petrol station brands when looking at fuel sales for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles. Of the leading five brands, four are supermarket chains, with Sainsbury coming in first, having sold 11,773 kiloliters per forecourt in 2021.

In August 2024, Norway once again broke records in the electric vehicle sphere. This month was the first time that the amount of all-electric cars on the road in the country overtook that of petrol cars. Norway is also the European country with the largest share of battery-electric vehicles in its new car sales. In contrast, petrol, diesel, and non-rechargeable hybrid vehicles only amounted to 9.61 percent of new passenger car sales in 2023, making Norway the European country with the most dynamic new electric vehicle (EV) market. EVs' growing success in Norway is partly due to governmental policies. Norway offers VAT cuts for electric vehicles, making them cheaper than ICE or hybrid cars. Additionally, the government supports a shift toward shared e-scooter services, and public bus fleets are progressively electric-powered. E-mobility can burden the national electricity grid, but Norway boasts a robust renewable electricity industry. Primarily supplied by hydroelectric, Norway's grid has so far coped with EVs' increasing hunger for electricity. Investments in electric vehicles' success. Norway's national government established incentives for electric vehicle purchases in the 1990s. However, it was not until 2016 that the battery-electric vehicle market exploded. That year, the government set the target of phasing out new fossil-fuel light vehicles by 2025. Between 2017 and 2023, the electric vehicle fleet more than quadrupled. The world's most extensive electric vehicle subsidies drove this success. In 2023, purchasing a small electric vehicle received average financial benefits of nearly 14,600 U.S. dollars, which climbed to some 27,100 U.S. dollars for large EVs. Policy instruments included free parking, bus lane access, tax reduction, and toll exemption. Despite changes to Norway's unparalleled EV subsidies in January 2023, consumer interest for EVs did not wane. The electrification of other vehicle types recorded a similar success. The electric van, electric bus, and electric truck fleets have all been consistently growing since 2018. This progress is especially impressive for electric trucks, which more than doubled in fleet size between 2022 and 2023. Challenges for Norway’s charging network expansion. To cope with the orchestrated growth of battery electric vehicle ownership, the government had to make charging points accessible and widely distributed. The number of publicly accessible chargers grew to around 27,500 units in the second quarter of 2024. However, while Norway has considerably scaled its EV charging network, it faces similar challenges to other European countries. Alternating current chargers were the most common public charger connector type in the country in 2023. These chargers tend to be slower than direct current chargers, as the electricity then needs to be transformed into direct current by electric vehicles' onboard chargers. Furthermore, as Norway invests in its public charging infrastructure, some counties are left behind in Norway's electrification. Akershus, the Norwegian county with the most extensive charging network, had over seventeen times more public charging points than Finnmark, the county with the smallest charging network. Norway continues to make great strides in the expansion of its electric vehicle market through investments in the sector which aim to boost consumer adoption. However, the country still faces hurdles to its fleet and charging network growth: regional disparities between urban, densely populated areas and more rural areas present a future challenge for Norway.

Indonesia is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal. Coal mining accounts for around 6.6 percent of Indonesia's national GDP, making it one of the country's most important commodities. Due to its vast resources, Indonesia also has been relying heavily on coal to meet its electricity demands. Coal as Indonesia’s primary energy source. Indonesia targeted its electricity generation capacity to reach about 85 gigawatts in 2023. For a dynamic, emerging country, this capacity would not be sufficient for long and additional capacities must be created quickly. As coal are available in great quantities, dispatchable, and the corresponding power plants can be built with relatively low costs, coal mining has therefore been a cornerstone of politics and a likely target for government interventions. Since 2020, coal mines have been obliged to sell 25 percent of the production volume on the domestic market and the state-owned electricity supplier PLN received a maximum price of 70 U.S. dollars per ton of coal purchased. PLN estimated that it would take over 160 million metric tons of coal for power generation in 2023. This number increased compared to their coal allocation in 2022 of around 122.5 million metric tons. Coal production outlook. Unsurprisingly, coal producers expected a thriving market in Indonesia. The coal industry had only been slightly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, as Indonesia's coal output in 2020 was still even higher in comparison to its pre-pandemic output in 2018. After recovering in 2021, the demand for Indonesian coal had been expected to rise due to the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the ban on Russian fossil fuels. As of 2022, the increase of Indonesia’s coal production reached more than 73 million metric tons. A flourishing export market is essential as around 70 to 75 percent of Indonesia’s coal production is exported abroad. The main export countries include India, China, and Japan. In 2022, about 20 percent of the global coal exports were exported from Indonesia, making it the largest coal exporting country in world. However, the Indonesian energy program could turn the industry into an internal market. For that reason, and to achieve independence from the global market, several large Indonesian mining companies have expanded directly into the energy sector in order to become an integrated energy company that uses its own coal. Coal's impact on the environment. On the other hand, the production of coal and especially electricity generation from coal does have an impact on the environment. Indonesia’s coal power emissions have doubled in the past decade, accounting for about two percent of the global coal-fired power emissions in 2022. Considering current developments in Indonesia and other countries, not less, but more is to be expected. Indonesia's energy policies still favor coal, yet the country's climate goals, as well as environmental and public health concerns, are all at odds with the development of coal use.

The machinery industry is a branch of industry that deals with the production and maintenance of machines. It provides a means of production for entities in the manufacturing segment and construction industry including public utility sectors. It also provides supporting equipment for all sectors of the economy, including equipment for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. A few of the prominent subsectors of the machinery industry in India include electrical equipment, earthmoving and mining machinery, and machine tools. Most of these subsectors allow 100 percent foreign direct investment (FDI). History of machinery industry in India. Since India’s independence in 1947, along with the government’s economic strategies in the form of the five-year plans, the importance of this industry has considerably grown. While machinery manufacturing was one of the newest branches of India’s modern industry, it started out as one of the smallest. The first domestic machinery company with national importance was established by the Indian state in 1953, the Hindustan Machine Tools Limited. After several years of growth, it became one of the largest industrial sectors in India. Prior to that, India mainly relied on foreign imports or local manufacturers established by foreign companies. Electrical equipment industry in India. The electrical equipment industry is the biggest subsegment within the machinery industry. It provides equipment used for power generation, power transmission, and power distribution. India’s domestic electric machinery industry was established around the 1960s. The expansion of the power sector has been important for raising of generation capacity and demands for electrical machinery. The industry and government have also been gearing towards transformation of the energy sector with a focus on renewables. This would imply providing equipment and machinery particularly for the solar and wind energy sector.

For the majority of people living in Great Britain the car is an inherent part of their daily lives. In 2017 it was the most common mode of transport not just for personal travel trips, but also as a means to commute to work. 68 percent of the British population drove their car to work, with 11 percent using rail services. Regarding driving tests taken, the pass rate for practical tests had been increasing in the last ten years. In 2017/18, men had performed better than women by a margin of seven percent. By comparison, women were more likely to succeed the theory tests, although pass rates had been declining in recent years. Overall, the number of attempted theory tests amounted to nearly 1.9 million, with roughly half of them being successful. In terms of road safety, 2017 recorded the lowest number of car occupants insured since 2012, with 100,082 instances reported. Figures for pedestrian casualties echoed this development, although 2017 had seen a slight increase compared to the previous year. Unsurprisingly, the most common types of roads found in the United Kingdom were minor roads, which ran for a total length of roughly 215,300 miles as of 2017. This made them nearly ten times as long as the next entry, Principal ‘A’ roads. However, rural ‘A’ roads accounted for 30 percent of all road traffic, making them the most used.

General Motors was the leading automotive manufacturer in the United States in 2023, based on its estimated market shares of nearly 17 percent. The company owns several of the most iconic U.S.-built car brands, including Buick, Chevrolet, and Cadillac. Chevrolet is GM's most successful brand, with its Equinox model ranking sixth among the best-selling crossover and sport utility vehicles of the country in 2023. Although the automaker assembles most of its cars in the United States, GM also manufactures a large percentage of its cars in Asia: Most of GM’s cars dedicated to the Chinese market are produced locally, and a Buick was the first car to be produced in GM’s Shanghai plant in 1998. A preference for the North American market. GM’s global sales have been dropping since 2016. While 2023 marked a change in this trend, with sales up by 4.2 percent year-over-year, the 6.2 million vehicles sold by GM worldwide were still far below the 2016 peak. However, while overall sales declined, the company’s annual revenue increased. GM North America accounted for some 89.7 percent of GM’s 2023 automotive revenue. The United States, where GM is headquartered, was the largest market for the automaker. Nearly 17 percent of the U.S. market were vehicles sold by one of the company’s brands, making it the best-selling automotive manufacturer in the country. The Chevrolet Silverado was also one of the best-selling light trucks in the U.S. Light trucks have been steadily gaining popularity in the country, and GM has invested in being one of the segments’ leaders. The GMC Hummer EV was among the few electric pickup trucks on the market, and an August 2023 survey found 48 percent of consumers on the market for a new pickup would consider purchasing the electric truck. This was the same score as the Rivian R1T and 21 percentage points more than Tesla's Cybertruck. The Chevrolet Bolt was also among the best-selling plug-in electric cars in the United States in 2023, ensuring GM’s place in the booming U.S. electric vehicle market. While labor strikes in late 2023 in the United States contributed to a drop in GM's earnings before interest and taxes, the popularity of the American manufacturer remained undeniably strong in its domestic market. The key to consumer satisfaction. In 2023, GM's Cadillac brand ranked among the five automobile and light vehicle brands with the highest consumer satisfaction in the United States. Chevrolet, Buick, and GMC were also in the top 15, establishing a good track record for GM's brands. One of the factors behind this success with consumers is General Motors’ advertising spending in the United States. Since 2021, the company started to increase its advertising expenses, remaining the automobile manufacturer with the highest expenditures in the country in 2022. The automaker spent on average of 1,414 U.S. dollars per Buick vehicle sold in 2022, which was around 1,240 U.S. dollars more than what Ford Motor Company spent on the sale of one car from its eponymous brand. Part of General Motors’ popularity in the U.S. market could also be due to vehicle availability. American brands tended to have better vehicle availability as of December 2023, with Buick among the five brands with the best availability as of that month, at 106 days of supply. Comparatively, GMC recorded 73 days of supply while Chevrolet reported 71 days of supply, and Cadillac had the lowest availability at 61 days of supply. In contrast, Toyota vehicles only had 32 days of supply.

German consumers were the biggest group of car buyers in Europe. In 2017, the number of new car registrations in Europe amounted to 18.1 million, with Germany accounting for more than 20 percent of all new registrations. On average, buying a passenger car in the EU28 cost consumers 28,855 euros. Denmark was the most expensive country for these purchases within the EU28, although the country ranked below Norway and Switzerland. In the second half of 2018, the most commonly bought model in Europe was the VW Golf at 189,371 units sold. Out of consumers in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, Belgians were the most likely to acquire a vehicle the same day they were visiting the dealership, although the share of those waiting roughly a month was still higher at 35 percent. By comparison, Italians took the longest time to consider purchases, with more than half of respondents needing around a month. Of that same group, Belgians were also the most interested in the possibility of buying a car online without visiting a dealership. This might be due to a lack of availability/stock at dealerships, which was the second most common factor Belgian consumers stated as least enjoyable about their dealership experience. Regarding interest in specific features, more than half of respondents in the aforementioned European countries were interested in vehicles, which were able to self-diagnose problems and book service appointments. Germany proved to be the exception, with only 44 percent reporting such an interest. German consumers mostly had a good relationship with car dealers, with 70 percent reporting they enjoyed the good deal they were able to make when purchasing a car through dealerships.

Together with its automotive industry, South Korea's auto parts supplier industry is rated as one of the world’s best. The industry boasts a sales value well into the multi-billion U.S. dollar range. Domestic auto suppliers have remained competitive in the global parts market by offering eco-friendly parts, advanced features, and modularization. Furthermore, the nation's position as an IT powerhouse is expected to benefit local auto parts manufacturers in this regard. Who are the major auto suppliers in South Korea? The highest-ranking company among major South Korean auto part makers was Hyundai Mobis, placing seventh among the world’s top one hundred auto suppliers. Three other companies featured on the list were also members of the Hyundai Motor Group conglomerate: Hyundai WIA, Hyundai Transys, and Hyundai KEFICO. As the leading South Korean parts maker, Hyundai Mobis continued to record sales revenue figures of multi-trillion South Korean won. The other companies featured on the aforementioned list were not as prolific in terms of sales, but nevertheless are significant players in the market. What is the car tire market like in South Korea? The South Korean automobile tire market is led by domestic producers. The market was largely dominated by two companies, Kumho Tire and Hankook Tire, with Nexen Tire also providing healthy competition. Although it ranked second place in terms of domestic market share, Hankook Tire was South Korea’s leading tire manufacturer on the global stage. The company’s sales revenue maintained steady levels in recent years, with most of the company’s revenue coming from overseas sales, such as exports of high-quality tires to premium car makers such as Mercedes-Benz. Which companies produce car infotainment parts in South Korea? Many automobiles these days have various electronics such as dashcams or navigation systems installed. South Korean companies are also involved in manufacturing these components. For example, LG Display produces LCD and OLED panels for domestic use and export, and boasted a significant share in the global automotive display market. Fellow LG Corporation subsidiary LG Electronics sells automobile infotainment devices, vehicle software, and autonomous driving technology. Thinkware Corporation, another Korean automobile electronics manufacturer, made billions of won just from dashcam sales.

Modern life depends on steel. Infrastructure, buildings, and cars require huge amounts of iron and steel in the production process. During its modernization process, China has built up a gigantic production capacity for iron and steel and is, by way, the largest steel producer worldwide, with an annual crude steel production volume exceeding one billion metric tons for the past two consecutive years. Although China consumes the largest share of its produced steel, exports also play an important role for Chinese steelmakers. Controversial accusations have long been voiced that state-subsidized Chinese steel mills are flooding the world market with cheap steel at dumping prices. In recent years, the Chinese government has taken steps to cut the industry’s overcapacity. This has barely affected China's global share of crude steel production, which has continued to rise, surpassing 50 percent since 2017. China’s steel use. The amount of steel China consumes itself is difficult to assess. Not only do imports and exports have to be taken into consideration, but the indirect trade in steel, embedded in products partly made of steel like machinery, cars, or white goods, needs to be included as well. Apparent steel use (ASU), an indicator developed by the World Steel Association to measure steel demand and is expressed as deliveries minus net exports, stood at 995 million metric tons of finished steel products for China in 2020. True steel use (TSU), which additionally takes into account the volume of net indirect trade and therefore comes close to the actual amount of steel products consumed in China, amounted to around 725.5 million metric tons of finished steel products in 2019. Iron ore. The Chinese steel industry is not only dependent on the global market for sales, but also on the supply of raw materials, especially iron ore. Although China domestically mines large quantities of iron ore and possesses the fourth largest reserves of iron ore in the world, its iron ore is of low quality and contains only relatively low quantities of iron. Therefore, China is heavily reliant on the global iron ore supply, being by way the largest importer of iron ore worldwide. Imports are coming mainly from Australia and Brazil, these two countries together making up more than 80 percent of total iron ore imports to China. Steel recycling. In recent years, recycling has played a growing part in steelmaking in China, as the Chinese government has tried to increase the recycling rate of steel scrap. Although still low compared to other countries, the recycling rate of steel scrap used in crude steel production reached nearly 22 percent in 2021 and is likely to increase further in the coming years. Steel manufactures. Faced with overcapacity in domestic and global markets, China's steel industry is going through a thorough restructuring phase. A prime example of this restructuring process is the merger of Baosteel Group and Wuhan Iron and Steel in 2016, forming China Baowu Steel Group. In May 2019, Baowu Group obtained a controlling stake in the listed entity of Maanshan Iron and Steel, which brought Baowu close to its goal of becoming a steel giant with more than 100 million metric tons of annual output volume. This enabled Baowu to overtake ArcelorMittal as the world's largest steel producer on a global scale. Although many steel enterprises in China are state-owned, like Baowu, having only parts of their companies listed on the stock exchange, there are also many private steelmakers in China, the largest being Shagang Group from Jiangsu province.

Spain has a long road ahead to reach the European Union's plan for all passenger car and van sales to be zero emissions by 2035. As of 2022, around 205,700 zero-emission passenger cars were in use on Spanish roads, while over 9.05 million cars had the C environmental sticker, granted to light petrol vehicles registered since January 2006 or light diesel vehicles registered since September 2015. The zero-emission vehicle market is still emerging, with battery-electric vehicles spearheading its global growth. In Spain, under ten percent of new passenger car sales in 2022 were plug-in electric vehicles, nearly four percent of which were battery-electric vehicles. Comparatively, around 12.14 percent of passenger car sales in the European Union were fully electric. The Spanish government is taking active steps to boost market expansion. The volume of public electric vehicle chargers reached a record high in the fourth quarter of 2022, and the government's MOVES III plan put in place in 2021 provides subsidies for the purchase of fuel-cell electric, battery-electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, as well as for the installation of electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure. However, these efforts have yet to sway consumers' perceptions of the EV market. Over half of the Spanish respondents to a February 2023 survey were willing to make a financial effort to purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle but highlighted disincentives to EV purchase. According to this survey, 66 percent of Spanish car buyers considered fully electric vehicles too expensive. In comparison, 57 percent of the participants experienced range anxiety, and 40 percent reported lacking access to EV charging infrastructure. Challenges for the Spanish battery-electric market. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) were the country's most popular type of plug-in electric passenger car. Though less popular than their non-rechargeable hybrid counterparts—which comprised around 29.44 percent of the 2022 sales— PHEV sales overtook battery-electric vehicle (BEV) sales in 2020 and reached nearly 47,800 units in 2022. Most electric and hybrid vehicles manufactured in Spain were also PHEVs, which beat BEVs by around 14,000 units produced across vehicle types. This interest in PHEVs over BEVs contrasts with the European trend, as markets like Germany stopped subsidizing new plug-in hybrid electric sales, and suggests that Spanish drivers still rely on PHEV's fossil fuel propulsion. The battery-electric vehicle market faces various sets of challenges to its growth, particularly when it comes to access to charging infrastructure. Differences in the charging network can be observed between autonomous communities. For example, Madrid was the autonomous community with the largest volume of new EV registrations in 2022, including light passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles, industrial vehicles, buses, and quadricycles. However, the community ranked second in Spain for the size of its charging network, behind Catalonia. On a national level, the country also boasted more urban public electric vehicle chargers than inter-urban ones and more alternating current (AC) chargers than direct current (DC) ones. AC charging points, while the most common charging type, were also typically slower than DC chargers, as electric vehicle batteries need to transform AC electricity to DC electricity through onboard chargers. Governmental boost to the EV industry. On July 13, 2021, the Council of Ministers approved the first of the Strategic Projects for Economic Recovery and Transformation (PERTE), focusing on connected and electric vehicles. The project expected more than 24 billion euros to be invested in EVs and connected cars between 2021 and 2023, including 4.3 billion from the public sector. In the context of this plan, Spain set the ambitious goal of reaching 250,000 electric vehicles in the country. This goal is about 140,000 vehicles over the 2022 status quo when nearly 109,900 electric vehicles— including passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, industrial vehicles, and buses—were registered in the country. This attempt to revitalize the sector is expected to rely heavily on the Spanish manufacturing industry. In 2022, 19 electric vehicle models were manufactured in Spain, and forecasts estimate 20 EV models will be produced in the country in 2023. Notably, the country manufactures the electric C4 for Citroën, a French manufacturer. This model was Spain's fifth best-selling battery-electric and extended-range electric vehicle model in 2022. European brands were, however, not the overall market leaders in Spain. The American Tesla and the South Korean Kia and Hyundai were the best-selling BEV brands in 2022, reflecting the ongoing global trend of Tesla and Asian automakers topping the rankings. As of 2022, no Tesla, Hyundai, or Kia electric vehicle models were manufactured in Spain. To revitalize the manufacturing industry and boost electric vehicle sales, Spain could therefore need to increase its international trade of electric vehicles.

E-bikes now dominate the German bicycle market. More than every second bicycle sold in Germany in 2023 was equipped with electric pedal-assist. Although e-bike sales have been on the rise for years, 2023 marked the first year in which e-bikes had outsold conventional bicycles. At an average sales price of 2,950 euros, more than six-fold the average price of non-motorized bikes, e-bikes have been critical to maintaining sales revenue in the bicycle sector in the last few years. Following the boom in bicycle sales in 2020, bicycle sales dropped, and the market entered a difficult phase of decreased demand from consumers, while retailers still held excess inventory that had been ordered in response to skyrocketing demand in previous years. Revenue from regular bicycle sales decreased by as much as 26 percent between 2022 and 2023. Meanwhile, the decreasing but nonetheless, more consistent demand for and higher per-unit cost of e-bikes was able to soften the drop in overall bicycle revenues somewhat. E-bike range anxiety? The high price of an e-bike compared to a regular bicycle is an important factor not only for retailers but also for consumers. Over half of e-bike owners responding to a survey cited price and budget as one of the most important criteria for choosing their e-bike, making it the most frequently cited reason for choosing their current bike. A close second, though, was battery range, which just under half of respondents cited. Close to half of e-bike owners reported that their e-bike’s battery range was 60 kilometers or more, although around a third of respondents did not know what their bike’s battery range was. With around 60 percent of e-bike owners cycling no more than this distance in a week, this battery range is likely to be sufficient for most e-bike owners, and newer e-bikes are increasingly efficient and promise higher battery ranges. Nonetheless, nearly three-quarters of e-bike owners would like their battery range to extend to at least 80 kilometers. The largest e-bike market in Europe. Germany has been the largest bicycle market in Europe for years, and with the widespread adoption of e-bikes, it has now become the largest e-bike market as well. Germans bought nearly three times as many electric bicycles in 2023, as the French, the second-largest market for e-bikes on the continent. While the Netherlands comes third in the ranking, with a little under a quarter of the German sales figures, it has been consistently ahead of Germany in terms of e-bike market share, although this gap has been closing. In 2023, 57 percent of e-bikes sold in the Netherlands were electric, compared to Germany’s 53 percent. Meanwhile, the largest growth in the European e-bike market can be found in less saturated markets. Norway, Sweden, and Belgium can expect the highest growth in the e-bike market of between 12 and 15 percent from 2024 to 2025. In contrast, Germany’s market is projected to contract slightly by 0.4 percent in the same period.

During the communist era, Romania was one of the biggest vehicle producers in Central and Eastern Europe. After the 1989 collapse, manufacturers like ARO and Oltcit were privatized and went bankrupt. Still, the industry remains a major contributor to GDP and jobs. After the challenging years of 2020 and 2021, the Romanian automotive industry recorded the highest revenue of about 33 billion euros in 2023. Driving Romania’s Economy Forward. The industry plays a central role in both domestic demand and exports. One way to measure this significance is through the number of passenger cars in use. Between 2015 and 2023, the number of cars on Romanian roads grew steadily from around 5.1 million to over 8.1 million vehicles. This increase reflects rising living standards and growing demand for transport-related services. Equally important is the net profit achieved by the automotive industry. In 2023, the sector recorded a total profit of around 582 million euros, up nearly 20 percent compared to the previous year. The most profitable branch was car parts and accessories, with almost 170 million euros, followed closely by electronics at over 161 million euros. Exports further underline the sector’s importance. Romania has become a competitive vehicle exporter, with the value of exports climbing from under 10 billion U.S. dollars in 2016 to more than 17.3 billion U.S. dollars in 2024. These figures show how the industry strengthens trade and global integration. RABLA in Reverse. The transition to greener mobility in Romania remains fragile, as the dominance of traditional fuels continues to overshadow new technologies. In 2024, petrol cars still accounted for 53.7 percent of the passenger car fleet, while diesel vehicles made up 40.9 percent. By contrast, electric and plug-in hybrids together represented just 0.7 percent of the total, far below the EU average of 4.1 percent. This shows Romania’s dependence on combustion engines and the slow shift to cleaner transport. This fragile progress was disrupted in 2025 when the government suspended RABLA. The last-minute decision weakened confidence and discouraged EV purchases. In the first half of 2025, only 3,189 electric cars were sold nationwide, led by Dacia’s Spring with 1,159 units. However, this marked a 44.9 percent decline from 2024, highlighting the impact of policy uncertainty. Meanwhile, the second-hand market thrived. In the first seven months of 2025, more than 200,000 used cars were registered for the first time in Romania, an increase of 9.5 percent compared to 2024. In July alone, registrations reached 36,234 vehicles, 16 percent higher than a year earlier. Most imports were old cars, which helps explain why the average vehicle age in Romania is 15.4 years, the third highest in the EU and well above the 12.5-year European average. For industry experts, this trend illustrates how inconsistent policy, particularly around the RABLA scheme, undermines both the modernization of the national car park and Romania’s European climate commitments - but with stable policies and investment, Romania has the chance to position itself as a competitive player in Europe’s green mobility future.

The United States is the leading biofuel-producing country in the world ahead of Brazil and Indonesia and biofuels account for around seven percent of total transportation fuel demand in the country. Biofuels are motor fuels used as an alternative to petroleum-based products or as a fuel additive. They may be used unblended for engines operating on pure biofuels or combined with refined petroleum for usage in regular engines. Renewable diesel is the only biofuel that can be used as a drop-in in regular combustion engines. Iowa leads the U.S. in biofuel production. Besides renewable diesel, a more recent addition to the biofuel market, other types include fuel ethanol and biodiesel. Crops such as corn, wheat, and soy are among the most common feedstocks used to create these fuels in the U.S. Many refineries are located in the Midwest. Iowa houses both the largest U.S. production capacity of ethanol plants and biodiesel plants. The state’s annual biodiesel production amounts to over eight million barrels, the most of any U.S. state. Chevron’s Renewable Energy Group is the largest U.S. biodiesel producer. The Iowa-based company has a production capacity of 448 million gallons per year and operates plants in the U.S. and in Europe. Fuel ethanol as an additive in gasoline. Fuel ethanol is a commonly used supplement for gasoline motor fuel. All gasoline engines are able to use gasoline fuel with an ethanol content of 10 percent, making E10 the most common ethanol-containing gasoline type in the U.S. E15 fuel with an ethanol content of 15 percent is only used by light-duty vehicles. Generally, higher percentage blends such as E85 sold for more than regular gasoline. While annual U.S. transportation fuel demand is forecast to have decrease to less than 700 billion liters by 2030, biofuels are expected to continue playing a consequential role in the motor fuel market and even increase their share in total fuel demand.

Europe currently accounts for around 30 percent of the global connected car fleet. The European Union is one of the regions with large potential for connected services. Connected cars are equipped with telecommunication technology that enables the vehicle to connect with in-car devices and networks outside of the vehicle. Hence, connected cars can communicate with other vehicles on roads, as well as smart infrastructure. Connected cars will make travel faster and safer. The advent of connected car technology has many expected benefits to road transportation and traffic management. As connected technology and infrastructure becomes widespread, drivers can expect to complete their journeys faster and safer. Additionally, passengers and drivers will be able to connect their own devices to the internet and expand infotainment services. Among the reasons most often cited by Europeans that make connected cars attractive are security, navigation, and maintenance features. However, not all Europeans are onboard: Worries about the misuse of their personal and geo-location data, attacks from hackers, and unwanted advertisements are concerns for motorists. Autonomous vehicles will be next. Vehicle connectivity is vital for the development of autonomous vehicles, making it a major component of the Internet of Things not just in Europe, but in virtually all major markets and the increase in shipments of embedded OEM telematics systems worldwide can be seen as indicative of that. For autonomous vehicles to become technologically feasible, telecommunications infrastructure must be 5G-ready. However, only about one third of European mobile connections are expected to be 5G by 2025, as Europe has lagged behind 5G rollout in part due to slow construction of masts amid local opposition to the raising of towers. On the upside, high-income Western Europe can afford paying for technologically advanced vehicles and up-market additional services. By 2030, autonomous vehicles could account for one in four new vehicle sales in the European Union.

Given the geographical size and makeup of Australia and its comparatively sparse intercity public transport infrastructure, it is hardly surprising that road (and off road) vehicles play a significant role in the daily lives of Australians. What types of vehicles are popular, and how are they powered? When it comes to fuel, Australians still prefer petrol propulsion by a significant margin, with sales of petrol vehicles far outweighing other fuel types. While petrol is the most popular fuel choice, it is interesting to note that hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) outsold diesel-powered options by around a third in 2021. Sports-utility vehicles (SUVs) are one of the most popular vehicle types amongst Australians, with both small and large SUVs only being outsold by four-wheel drive pick-ups in 2021. Commercial vehicles, too, have enjoyed steady sales in recent years, peaking at just under 300 thousand units at the end of 2021. Australia and the electric vehicle. Mirroring global trends, there has been a significant year-on-year increase in the sales of electric vehicles in Australia, with a particular jump in numbers from 2018 to 2019. The former saw sales of just over 2.2 thousand, whereas just one year later, 6.7 thousand were sold. Of course, with increased sales comes an increase in need for owners to be able to charge their vehicles. Australia’s charging network has seen an increase in both AC and DC charger availability since 2018, with AC chargers seeing a faster year-on-year increase.

Car sharing refers to the organized rental of one or more cars in a customer community. Rentals are often short-term and used for commuting in a city. The most used car sharing service in Germany was SHARE NOW (comprised of the formerly separate car2go and DriveNow), followed by MILES and Sixt Share. SHARE NOW also had the largest number of vehicles available to share. 1,271 German cities and towns had car sharing services as of 2024. The number of car sharing stations in Germany has been increasing during recent years. In 2023, there were 7,100 stations, compared to 3,250 in 2013. Rising demand may be due to various circumstances. Using car sharing services rather than buying a car could be connected to financial reasons, whether for a certain time or long-term, as well as wishing to use means of transport sustainably by not contributing to vehicle numbers. In larger cities, people may need a car only occasionally and otherwise get around with public transport. In 2024, car sharing companies provided a total of 43,110 vehicles for their customers. Surveys indicate that the number of people who use or are interested in car sharing in Germany is dropping, though the opposite is true for actual user numbers. Registered car sharing user numbers have exploded in Germany in recent years, from over one million in 2015 to more than 5 million in 2024. Car sharing offers a lot of advantages to commuters and the mobility market in Germany is definitely one to watch. Growing energy prices have added a significant challenge both for businesses and customers alike, however, though this will not shut down demand completely.

The Ford brand is one of the highest valued automotive brands in the world, particularly when compared to its American competitors. Valued at around 9.1 billion U.S. dollars, it ranked seventh among the most valuable brands within the automotive sector worldwide as of June 2023. The namesake brand belongs to Ford Motor Company, which also holds the rights to the Lincoln brand. In the fourth quarter of 2023, the Ford brand represented around 95.4 percent of the manufacturer’s sales in the United States. However, Ford Motor's 2023 calendar year was not without its share of challenges. The United Auto Workers strike in September and October put pressure on vehicle production at many of Ford Motor's, General Motors', and Stellantis' assembly plants in the United States, leading to an estimated loss of nearly 4.35 billion U.S. dollars for the Big Three manufacturers. A global performance dependent on U.S. sales. Founded by Henry Ford in Detroit, 1903, Ford Motor Company was an early pioneer in vehicle manufacturing, particularly line assembly. This established Ford as one of the world’s first mass producers of automobiles. In recent years, Ford Motor has been recovering from the net loss recorded through the COVID-19 pandemic and global automotive semiconductor shortage. In 2023, Ford Motor's global net income reached some 17.9 billion U.S. dollars. Most of its revenue came from its Ford Blue segment, which focuses on internal combustion vehicles and hybrid vehicles. While the company's passenger vehicle business is at the core of its revenue generation, Ford Motor is becoming increasingly less reliant on advertising to sell their vehicle. In 2022, Ford has spent roughly 1.5 billion U.S. dollars on advertising campaigns in the United States, down from around 2.3 billion in 2019. The company benefitted from one of the highest car buzz in the United States, with nearly a third of consumers having noticed Ford Motor's eponymous brand in the media, on social media, or in advertising in the three months prior to Statista Consumer Insights' 2023 survey. Ford’s place in the U.S. market. With close to 2.1 million wholesales in 2020, the United States was the leading market for Ford Motor Company’s vehicles. Among Ford’s model line-up is one of the world’s most popular vehicles: the F-150. The F-series has proven to be consistently one of the most popular pickup trucks in the United States, where light trucks represent the largest share of light vehicle sales. In 2023, the Ford Explorer was also among the fifteen best-selling cars and sport-utility vehicles in the U.S., recording around 186,800 sales. U.S. consumer satisfaction with Ford grew to an index score of 77 that same year. The Ford Motor Company was the third-largest manufacturer in the United States based on market shares, holding 13 percent of the total U.S. sales in 2023, behind its main competitors General Motors and Toyota Motor.

Most of the funding for the construction of highways in the United States comes from the public sector. The private sector is mostly involved in these projects as contractors that get hired to do certain construction works, or through public-private partnerships (PPP). Under a PPP, private firms either receive money from the government to build, operate or maintain parts of the road network, or these firms acquire the right to generate revenue in exchange for a fee paid to the government. In terms of public investment, the majority of the spending on highway and street construction was at the local and state government level. In 2023, just 5.4 billion U.S. dollars for that type of transportation infrastructure came from the Federal Government. Highways and other public infrastructure projects. In 2023, and in most recent years, highways and streets were either the type of infrastructure with the highest construction spending or the second in the ranking after power infrastructure projects. Despite some fluctuations, that investment on roads has been rising. There was also over a 100 million U.S. dollars for infrastructure projects that came from the private sector. However, as mentioned above, those figures were not significant for the highway and street segment. Most of that private construction spending went to power infrastructure, with only a much smaller amount going to transport, which also includes airports and railway. Transportation spending in the Federal Budget. Even if the local and state governments are responsible for the largest share of new roads built and the maintenance of the older ones, the Federal Government also plays an important role. Over 3.39 billion U.S. dollars of the spending by the Federal Government on construction in 2023, as well as architectural and engineering services went to the Department of Transport (DOT). The DOT is responsible for planning and coordinating the highway system across states, providing important funding towards that goal. Nevertheless, that is not the only departments of the U.S. funding transportation infrastructure. In fact, that same year, the spending of the Department of Defense on construction, architectural and engineering services included 1.26 billion U.S. dollars for highway, street, and bridge construction. Thus, local, state, and Federal Governments, working with contractors and construction companies, share the responsibility for maintaining the quality of the system of highways, roads, and streets in the U.S.

Evolution of the car market in Italy. The history of the Italian automotive industry dates back to 1880s. At one point in the 1910s, there were more than 15 different automobile manufacturers only in the city of Turin. However, most of these companies could not resist the strong commercialized international competition as some firms heavily scaled production facilities to offer cars at competitive prices. At the moment, the Italian automotive industry is mostly known for small city cars, special designed sports and supercars. The automotive manufacturing industry in the country is composed of many small and medium-sized (SME) manufacturers and dominated by Fiat. Once Italian, Fiat merged with the American Chrysler, making Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) in 2014. As the number of internationally dominant car manufacturing firms declined, Italy somewhat lost its position in the global passenger car market. In terms of motor vehicle production volume, Italy was the seventh-largest auto manufacturer in Europe in 2019. Although the motor vehicle production volume in Italy increased continuously until 2017, the Italian automobile manufacturing industry entered into a somewhat recessionary stage after 2017. In 2019, the Italian automotive production experienced a 9.3 percent decline. Luxury and supercars made in Italy. Although the Italian automobile firms lost the international position for passenger cars, the opposite is true for luxury and sports cars. Italian automotive firms remain leaders in the field of car design and technology. Ferrari, Lamborghini and Maserati are some of the global leaders from Italy in the luxury and supercar market with an improving manufacturing and corporate performance. For instance, car shipments made by Ferrari increased with a positive trend from 2011 to 2019, reaching over 10,000 shipments in 2019. Compared to Ferrari, Lamborghini experienced an even stronger growth path since 2009. Lamborghini increased the number of vehicle deliveries by at least six times during the most recent decade. Leading automobile manufacturers. The leading firms in the automobile industry offer technologically advanced cars that are highly competitive in terms of both costs and comfort for the households. Throughout the recent years, the long-term innovation strategy of international car brands, such as Volkswagen, Citroen or Dacia took over the declining demand for Fiat cars and improved their market position in the Italian car market. One should also consider the shift towards more environmentally friendly transportation means and the market for electric cars are on the horizon not only in Italy but also globally. Despite the fact that the number of electric cars in Italy only make a very marginal portion of the total market, there has been a steep rise since 2017. Between 2017 and 2019, the market share of electric cars in Italy increased six times, yet only making 0.6 percent of the total market. Companies that offer environmental friendly passenger cars at an affordable price with premium quality are expected to enhance the market share in Italy.

The French used car market broke national records in 2021 when over six million used passenger car transactions were recorded. However, amid global inventory shortages and price inflation, used car sales dropped in 2022, down to some 5.2 million transactions—the lowest transaction volume since 2009. While fewer transactions took place in 2022, used car prices in the country have been increasing since 1998; in December 2022, the monthly used car Consumer Price Index reached 104.68, the highest it had been since January 2019. This price increase reflects the broader price inflation issues faced by French consumers throughout 2021 and 2022, with the Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices surging to 6.8 percent in July 2022, a 5.3 percent increase year-over-year. Despite these challenges, the used car retail market is also forecast to keep growing up to 12.8 billion U.S. dollars in 2027. This is partly related to the consumer perception of the market: In a November 2021 survey, 81 percent of respondents strongly or somewhat agreed that buying a used car was a good way to increase their savings while also feeling that the used car purchasing process seemed more complicated than buying a new car. Obstacles to the consumer-to-consumer market. Used cars were by far the best-selling road vehicle type in France in 2021, amounting to over sevenfold the sales volume of used vans and trucks—the second best-selling used road vehicle type —and over three times the new car sales volume. That year, most of the used passenger car sales came from consumer-to-consumer (C2C) transactions. However, 85 percent of consumers responding to a November 2021 survey considered making their used vehicle purchase at garages affiliated with major car brands compared to 70 percent willing to purchase a car from people they knew, which was the largest share for the C2C market, over 15 percentage points above online C2C platforms. This survey highlighted that the fear of discovering hidden defects after purchase and lack of warranty were the leading obstacles for French consumers in the used car market. According to consumer reports, some 28.47 percent of used cars in circulation in France between May 2021 and May 2022 were damaged vehicles. This share compares to 40.94 percent and 21.3 percent in neighboring Switzerland and Germany. A few months later, between September 2021 and September 2022, consumers reported that Subaru used cars in circulation in the country had the most damages. In contrast, 15 percent of Renault used cars—the best-sellers on the French used car market in 2022—were reported as damaged. A rising used new energy vehicle market. The Renault Clio was the best-selling used vehicle model in France in 2022, with nearly 342,600 sales. The Renault Clio is typically a model with a petrol internal combustion engine (ICE), though a diesel model was also produced in the 1990s. Petrol ICEs were the most popular propulsion type for used cars sold in 2021, edging out diesel ICEs—the 2020 best-seller. New energy used cars, while still a small share of the market, have benefited from increased global interest in the electric vehicle market. Excluding non-rechargeable hybrids, approximately 135,100 used alternative fuel automobiles were sold in France in 2021, over double the volume sold in 2020. The zero-emissions used vehicle market is still emerging, and 18 percent of French respondents to a November 2021 survey found the used electric vehicle (EV) purchasing costs still too high, with another 16 percent worrying about the warranty and lifespan of the battery. Despite these challenges, the used vehicle market in France has shifted towards more recent passenger cars in line with stricter European emission standards. Used car sales with the Crit’Air E sticker —allocated to battery electric and hydrogen vehicles with no direct emissions—more than doubled between 2020 and 2021. Though the Crit’Air 2 sticker remained the most popular for used cars, Crit’Air 1 vehicle sales have also increased.